means yet reached its full development. Subways for foot passengers are occasionally constructed in connection with railway termini; one such connects the Bishopsgate (London) station of the Metropolitan railway with the Liverpool street station of the Great Eastern; another connects two Victoria stations at Pimlico, belonging to different lines and companies. The Tower Subway is a remarkable instance of a passage under the Thames for foot-passengers. The Metropolitan or underground railway, opened in 1863, was the first example of its kind; the passengers going down-stairs from the side pavements to stations underneath the carriage-way. The pneumatic propulsion of mail-bags (see PNEUMATIC DISPATCH) has given rise to projects for a similar mode of propelling rail way trains beneath streets and roads. One such, the Waterloo and Whitehall railway, was commenced about 1865, to pass under the Thames; want of funds led to its aban donment after shafts had been sunk. The term subways is usually applied, not to such tunneled passages for traveling, but to roomy archways that will contain sewer-pipes, water-pipes, and gas-pipes. It has been long consided a defective system that whenever such pipes need repair, the surface of the street has to be broken up to get at them, thereby causing great expense and great interruption to traffic. When the metropolitan board of works commenced their series of improvements, they resolved on the trial of subways for this useful purpose. They began with a new street, extending from Covent Garden market to St. Martin's lane, opened in 1861. Underneath the carriage-way of this street, there is a subway, a central arched passage or tunnel 12 ft. wide by 6 ft. high; with arched side-openings for house service-pipes connected with the cellarage of the several dwellings. In this subway are water-pipes, gas-pipes, and electro-telegraphic wires, all easy of access by side entrances to the subway, of sufficient size to admit workmen, pipes, etc. In this instance, the main sewer is not in the subway itself, but underneath it, provided with man-holes, gullies, ventilating shafts, etc. A second example is afforded by Southwark street, lately formed from Blackfriars road to the southern foot of London bridge. Underneath this street extends a subway, excellently planned for the purposes above mentioned. Two street lamp-posts, of unusually elegant design, one at each end of the street, act as ventilating shafts for the subway, and there are other ventilators along the route, besides side entrances for workmen. A curious proof has been furnished, however, of the anomalies which so frequently mar our public works. In 1865, a gas company broke up the roadway, and broke through the wellbuilt crown of the arch of the subway, to get at their gas-pipes for purposes of repair or adjustment. It was found, on investigation, that no one had power to prevent them. The act empowered the metropolitan board of works to make a subway for the use of gas companies, water companies etc.; the gas company, on the other hand, were empowered by their act to break up the public roadways to get at their pipes; the board could not compel the company to adopt the new plan, because the powers were only permissive, not obligatory. The water companies and gas companies fear incurring additional expense; and there is known to be a difference of opinion among engineers concerning the danger from leakage and explosion when the two sets of pipes are inclosed in the same archway.

The subway system, after overcoming these and other difficulties, has made a great advance within a recent period. Queen Victoria street, and several other new streets, have been provided with subways similar to that under Southwark street. The Victoria or northern Thames embankment presents some fine examples of subway engineering. Between the masonry of the river-wall and the former line of high water, there are no less than three tunnels or arched passages under the surface of the ground parallel to the course of the river. One is the metropolitan district railway; another is the low-level sewer of the Great Main Drainage system; while a third is a subway to contain gas and water-pipes, telegraph wires, etc. The most extraordinary plan, perhaps, ever seriously proposed in subway engineering is connected with the spot where Tottenham Court road, Euston road, and Hampstead road join. The Metropolitan railway is here flanked on either side by sewers; above it, but below the level of the street, are several gas and water pipes, drains, and ventilating shafts; while crossing immediately over the Metropolitan railway, at right angles, is the tube of the (still abortive, 1879) pneumatic_dispatch (q.v.). Beneath all this is the section of another tunnel, intended to join the Midland and North-western railways with the South-eastern. Civil engineers and contractors are ready to grapple with the difficulties of this extraordinary work whenever financial circumstances are favorable. See RAILWAYS; TUNNEL. A system that ap,pears to have been very successful in London, and which in consequence is advocated 'by many for introduction into New York as a means of solving the rapid transit prob lem, is that known from its promoter as the GREATHEAD SYSTEM. Mr. Greathead secured for his plan a parliamentary concession in 1888, and constructed a subway from the Monument to South Lambeth, a distance of more than three miles, at a depth below the streets of from 40 to 60 feet. It is composed of two tunnels which are circular and driven through sand, clay, or rock, by instruments prepared for the purpose; and which are composed, after the opening has been made, of sections of iron rings bolted together and with the interstices filled with tarred rope, and surrounded by a coating of Roman cement impervious to water. Hydraulic elevators carry passengers up and down shafts sunk from the street-level. The advantages of the Greathead system are

(1) the great depth which allows the tunnel to be constructed with little interference to buildings on the surface, and which consequently lessens expense; (2) the use of electricity as the mode of tractions, thus avoiding the noise, smell, and dampness inevitable when steam locomotives are used; (3) the higher rate of speed possible, it being on an average from 22 to 26 miles an hour. The original Greathead line was opened Nov. 4th, 1890; since which time, four similar projects have been started. See an article by Mr. Simon Sterne in the Forum for August, 1891.

SUCCESSION is a legal term used in Scotland, but not used technically in England, where the same subject is spoken of under the name of next of kin (q.v.) and descent; see also ADMINISTRATION AND ADMINISTRATOR; DISTRIBUTION, STATUTE OF; EXECU TORS: INTESTACY.

SUCCESSION ACTS. From a comparatively early period in English history, parliament occasionally exercised the power of limiting or modifying the hereditary succession to the throne. The first instance of such interference occurred in the reign of Henry IV., who possessed himself of the crown, to the prejudice of the descendants of Lionel, duke of Clarence, second son of Edward III. Act 7 Henry IV. c. 2 confirmed the title of that monarch, and declared prince Henry heir-apparent of England and France, with remainders to Henry IV.'s other children. Parliamentary interposition was subsequently exercised in the case of Henry VII. and in regard to the immediate successors of Henry VIII. The respective rights of James I., Charles I., and Charles II. were acknowledged by parliament; and in the case of Charles II. the crown was held to have devolved on him immediately on the death of his father.

The revolution of 1688 was founded on the so-called abdication of the government by James II. See ABDICATION. The convention bestowed the crown on William and Mary for life, and regulated the claims of Anne. On the impending extinction of the Protestant descendants of Charles I., the crown was settled by 12 and 13 Will. III. c. 2, in the event of the death of William and Anne without issue, on the next Protestant line, according to the regular order of succession-viz., the descendants of the electress Sophia of Hanover, granddaughter of James I.; and it was at the same time enacted, that whoever should hereafter come to possession of the crown, should join the communion of the church of England as by law established. This is the latest parliamentary limitation of the crown; but the right of parliament to limit the succession has been secured by 6 Anne, c. 7, which attaches the penalties of treason to the “ maliciously, advisedly, and directly" maintaining, by writing or printing, that the king and parliament cannot make laws to bind the succession to the crown, and the penalties of a præmunire (q.v.) to maintaining the same doctrine by preaching, teaching, or advised speaking.

SUCCESSION WARS were of frequent occurrence in Europe, between the middle of the 17th and the middle of the 18th centuries, on the occasion of the failure of a sover. eign house. The most important of these wars was that of the Orleans succession to the Palatinate (1686-97), closed by the peace of Ryswick; of the Spanish succession (1700–13); of the Polish succession (1733-38), closed by the peace of Vienna; of the Austrian succession (1740-48); and of the Bavarian succession (1777-79), called, in ridicule, the potato-war. Of these, the second and fourth were by far the most important, and a brief notice of their course and conclusion is subjoined.

SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE SPANISH, arose on the death, without issue or collateral male heirs, of Charles II., king of Spain, Nov. 3, 1700. The nearest natural heir to the throne was of the royal line of France, Charles's elder sister having married Louis XIV. but to prevent any possible union of the two crowns, a solemn renunciation had beez exacted both from Louis and his queen, for themselves and their heirs; and this renunciation having been ratified by the king and cortes of Spain, was made as binding as legal forms could make it. Failing the Bourbons, the next heirs were the descendants of the younger sister of Charles, who had married the emperor Leopold I., and from whom no renunciation had been exacted; and the only issue being a daughter, who had married the elector of Bavaria, and borne a son, Joseph Ferdinand, this prince was during his lifetime regarded both by Charles II. and the Spanish people as the rightful heir. But, dying in 1699 without issue, the question of succession was reopened, Louis XIV., failing his wife's rights, claiming for himself, as the son of Philip IV.'s elder sister (being, however, again legally barred here by another solemn renunciation); while the emperor Leopold, maintaining with justice that the Bourbons were by these two renunciations wholly deprived of all their rights of heirship, claimed the throne as the son of Philip IV.'s younger sister. The other powers of Europe, especially Britain, Holland, and Germany, warmly interested themselves in the matter, as a question of policy, and with good reason; for not only was the crown of Spain a valuable prize in itself, carrying with it the sovereignty of the Netherlands, the Milanese, Naples, and Sicily, and immense possessions in America, but its union with France or Austria would of a certainty endanger the independence of every other sovereignty in Europe. Both claimants bade for the support of the maritime powers, the one by renouncing his claims in favor of his second grandson, Philip of Anjou, the other by putting forward his second son, Charles, as his substitute, while both solemnly promised never to undertake the union of the two crowns. The Austrian party at first preponderated in Spain; bnt Louis, by able and unscrupulous policy, succeeded in undermining the Austrian influence at Madrid, and ir having Philip declared the heir (Oct. 2, 1700). On the death of king Charles, a monti

after, Philip appeared in Spain, and was well received by all classes, and at once recog nized as monarch, an example gradually and unwillingly followed by all the European powers excepting the emperor; for at that time the dread of Louis XIV.'s power pressed like an incubus on the nations of Europe. However, the French monarch, by various ill-advised acts, chiefly by his support of the elder pretender (the son of James II.), whom he recognized as sovereign of Britain, and by occupation of the Netherlands and menacing treatment of Holland, stirred up such general resentment, that William III. was enabled to revive the grand alliance, and his successor, Anne, to join with Holland and Austria in declaring war against France and the Spanish usurper," May 15, 1702. Hostilities at once commenced; a combined British-Dutch-German army under. Marlborough attacked the French in Belgium, and captured one by one their fortresses on the Maes, while the Reichs army (Germany having declared for Austria), under the Markgraf of Baden, crossed the Rhine, and took Landau. Austria herself had, how ever, commenced the contest in the previous year by sending into Italy prince Eugene (q.v.) of Savoy-Carignan at the head of a veteran army of 32,000 men, who did a good deal of hard fighting, with no adequate result. Meanwhile, the elector of Bavaria raised an army and declared for France, and a French army under Villars marched to join him. Both were kept in check by the Markgraf for some time; but, in the summer of 1703, Villars burst through the Black Forest, and joined the elector, with the view of penetrating through Bavaria into Austria, but his obstinate ally, the elector, was determined to invade the Tyrol instead, and join Vendome in northern Italy-a scheme which ended most disastrously; and Villars returned in disgust to France. In the Low Countries, Marlborough employed himself in gradually depriving the French of their strongholds: in Italy the Austrians were driven from point to point, till nothing remained to them but a few districts on the Po; they were, however, relieved toward the close of the year by the defection from France of the duke of Savoy, who joined the grand alliance Oct. 25, 1703, an event which compelled Vendome to return to Piedmont. The first great blow was struck in the following year, when the combined Austrian-German-British army, under Marlborough, totally defeated the French and the elector at Blenheim (q.v.), driving the débris of their forces almost to the foot of the Vosges. After this the French never obtained a permanent footing in Germany. The campaigns of Marlborough in Germany, and of Eugene in Italy, in 1705, were successful but not very important. The year 1706 was another great epoch in this protracted contest; the British and Dutch having freed the valley of the Macs, had forced the French into South Brabant, and Marlborough having, by a stratagem, caused them to march toward Namur, suddenly attacked them at Ramillies (q.v.), and, after a brief combat, put them completely to rout with great slaughter, the elector and Villeroy, the joint commanders, narrowly escaping capture. Louis hastily re-enforced his army, and recalled Vendome from Italy to take the command, a step which, however necessary, cleared the way for Eugene who completely out-generaled his opponent Marsin, and after a memorable march of 34 days, appeared before Turin, and united with the duke of Savoy. The battle of Turin, in which the gallant Marsin was slain, was one of the most obstinate of the whole war, but its result was as decisive, and from this period the French power in northern Italy was shattered: and the following year saw the country completely cleared of both French and Spaniards. From 1706 the war in Germany was purely defensive, and no battle worthy of notice was fought. In Italy also the contest on the whole languished, though the Austrian arms were for the most part successful, Mantua and Naples (1708) being subdued, and the pope compelled to preserve neutrality by dread of another sack of Rome. But since the commencement of 1704, another theater of war had been established by the landing of the archduke Charles at Lisbon with 8,000 British and 6,000 Dutch troops, who were joined by the Portuguese (their king having acceded to the alliance against France), and invaded Spain from the west; but nothing of consequence was accomplished till a landing had beer effected by the earl of Peterborough (q.v.), with a small body of troops, in Catalonia. Then attacked both from the w. and e., the Bourbon forces were beaten and driven across the Pyrenees, and it was only after the departure of Peterborough that Berwick (q.v.) made head against his antagonists. By his victory at Almanza (April 25, 1707), he recovered the whole of Spain except Catalonia. In 1710 Berwick finally left Spain; and the Car lists under Stanhope and Starhemberg again got the upper hand, repossessing themselves of the e. of Spain, and of Madrid (Sept. 28). But the arrival of Vendome speedily changed the face of affairs. Stanhope was defeated and captured (Dec. 9) at Brihuega, and Starhemberg was forced to retreat on the following day. The war was thenceforth confined to Catalonia, and was distinguished by no noteworthy inci dents. The most important part of the struggle had been meanwhile taking place in the Netherlands, where Marlborough (1707) drew up in concert with Eugene a secret plan of operations which affected a division of the Moselle army under the elector and Berwick from that of the north under Vendome; whereupon the British and Germans swiftly uniting fell upon Vendome's army at Oudenarde (q.v.) (1708), and before Berwick could come up to its aid, inflicted upon it a severe defeat. The capture of Lille, Ghent, and Bruges necessarily followed. France now began to show symptoms of exhaustion, and made overtures of peace, but these being chiefly illusory, were rejected; and the emperor having largely re-enforced Fagene, the allies took the field with 110,000 men,

while the French, equal in strength, were now directed by Villars, the most enterpris ing and fortunate of their generals; but his star, which had hitherto been constantly in the ascendant, fell before that of Marlborough at Malplaquet (q.v.) (Sept., 1709). After some further campaigning, besieging, and negotiating, the opportune death of the emperor (April 17, 1711) rescued France from the brink of destruction; for Britain became imme diately lukewarm in support of a cause which would effect the reunion of Austria and Spain; and the_tories having come into power, private preliminaries of peace were signed between Britain and France, Oct. 8, 1711. Eugene, however, continued the war, aided by Holland, and captured Quesnoy; but the defeat and capture of the earl of Albermarle and the British contingent at Denain (July, 1712) so weakened his force, that he was compelled to give way; and in the following spring the Dutch joined the British as parties to the peace of Utrecht (q.v.). The emperor Charles was also forced to conclude a treaty of peace at Baden, Sept. 7, 1714, which ended the struggle, leaving Philip in possession of the Spanish throne (see UTRECHT); while Austria obtained the Spanish Netherlands and the Milanese.

SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN. The death of the emperor Charles VI. (Oct. 20, 1740), by which the male line of the house of Hapsburg became extinct, was the signal for a general uprising of the powers of Europe, some to prey on the Austrian possessions, and others to aid the eldest daughter and heir of the deceased emperor. The probability of such a contingency had long been foreseen by Charles VI., for as early as 1713 he had published a Pragmatic Sanction (q. v.), stipulating that, in default of male heirs, the whole of his dominions should descend undivided to his eldest daughter, Maria Theresa (q.v.); and it was almost his sole aim, during his subsequent reign, to gain the consent of all parties having proximate claims to any of the Austrian domains, and of the principal powers of Europe, to this arrangement. The elector of Bavaria, Charles Albert, alone refused to resign his pretensions. On the death of her father, Maria Theresa intimated her accession to the various European powers, and from all of them, except France and Bavaria, received assurances of good-will and support; but notwithstanding, two months did not elapse till Frederick II. of Prussia, without a declaration of war, invaded Silesia. The Austrian treasury was at this time exhausted, and the army much disorganized; so that little or no effective resistance could be made to the Prussians; while the state of alarm into which this sudden attack had thrown the court of Vienna was increased by doubts as to the intentions of France. These doubts were soon resolved by the latter, in the spring of 1741, forming a confederacy of all the claimants to the Austrian dominions-the electors of Bavaria and Saxony, sous-in-law of the emperor Joseph I.; Philip V. of Spain; Charies Emmanuel of Sardinia, who claimed the Milanese; and Frederick II. of Prussia, who now demanded almost the whole of Silesia. On the other hand, Britain granted Maria Theresa an annual subsidy of £300,000; the Dutch were willing to aid her when opportunity offered; and Hungary gallantly responded to her pathetic appeal by sending in thousands her motley population, Magyars, Croats, Slavs, and Tolpatches, to fight in defense of their heroic queen. Meantime the Bavarians, in conjunction with the French under Belleisle, overran the greater part of Bohemia. This invasion compelled the queen to buy off her most formidable opponent, Prussia, by the surrender of Silesia and Glatz; and then, while prince Charles of Lorraine kept the French at bay in Bohemia, Khevenhuller, the most enterprising of the Austrian generals, advanced up the valley of the Danube, captured 12,000 French in Lintz, overran Bavaria, and on the very day of the elector's coronation as the emperor Charles VII., took Munich his capital (Feb. 12, 1742). But this great success alarmed Frederick II. for the security of his new possessions, and abruptly breaking the treaty, he poured his forces into Bohemia and upper Austria, and gained the battle of Chotusitz (May 17). The same year witnessed increased activity on the part of Britain (the Walpole administration being now in power) and Holland on behalf of Austria; the expulsion of the French and Bavarians from Bohemia; the severance of the king of Sardinia from the coalition against Austria, produced by the bribe of some districts of the Milanese, which, however, he did not obtain till some time afterward; the enforcement of neutrality upon Naples by the threatening attitude of a British fleet off the capital; and, on the other hand, the recovery of Bavaria by the elector.

In May, 1743, Bavaria again fell into the hands of prince Charles and Khevenhuller; count Saxe was driven with great loss from the Palatinate; the "emperor" Charles Albert and the Swedes, disgusted at their ill-success in the war, retired from the contest, so that France and Spain now remained the sole representatives of the once mighty coalition. In 1744, France and Britain, which had hitherto engaged in the conflict only as allies, declared war on each other; and the latter proceeded to destroy piecemeal the French and Spanish shipping on the high seas, and to attack their colonial possessions. For this, however, the successes of Saxe in the Netherlands were a compensation. However, the great successes of Austria on the Rhine, and the ill-concealed ambitious projects of Maria Theresa, again alarmed Frederick II. for Silesia; and he resolved on another attempt to rivet his hold on the much coveted province before it was too late. Accordingly, he concluded at Frankfort (May 13, 1744), a secret convention with France, the emperor, the elector-palatine, and the king of Sweden. Bursting into Bohemia with his usual celerity, Frederick II. forced the Austrians at once to return from Alsace, thus enabling the elector to recapture Bavaria; but before prince Charles had time to reach

Succoth.

Bohemia, a fresh levy of 44,000 men, which had been raised by the chivalrous and patriotic Hungarians, joined by 6,000 Saxons, had reached the Prussians, and by cutting off their supplies, and capturing their stragglers and foraging parties, compelled them to evacuate the kingdom with considerable loss. In Italy, the Spaniards, who were now joined by the Neapolitans, were defeated repeatedly, and compelled to retreat down the peninsula; and the king of Sardinia succeeded in preventing the French from effecting a permanent lodgment in n.w. Italy. In January, 1745, the emperor-elector died, and his son, Maximilian Joseph, profiting from his father's misfortunes, declined to take part in the contest, or to allow himself to be nominated emperor, and made peace with Austria. Frederick II., displeased with the meddling and overbearing conduct of France with respect to the approaching imperial election, also sought to come to terms with Austria, by the mediation of Britain, and the peace of Dresden (Dec. 25, 1745) finally withdrew Prussia from the conflict. In Flanders, the fortunes of Austria also declined; and after the victory of Fontenoy (May 11, 1745) she could not prevent Saxe from capturing the chief Belgian fortresses in succession. In Italy, also, fortune declared for the coalition; for the Spanish-Neapolitan army, now re-enforced by the Genoese and Modenese-70,000 men in all-defied all opposition, overran the whole of Lombardy and much of the Sardinian territories, driving the king under the walls of his capital. Similar reverses befell the allies in Flanders during the campaign of 1746; but these were more than counterbalanced by the great successes obtained in Italy, where all the lost fortresses of Lombardy, Parma, and Guastalla, were recaptured, the coalition army totally routed in a great battle near Placentia (June 16), and Genoa overrun and occupied. Another of fortune's favors to Austria was the death of Philip V. of Spain (July 9), which, by depriving that arch-plotter, his queen, of the supreme power, considerably diminished the zeal of the Spanish court in the prosecution of the war. In 1747, the Dutch, who had hitherto escaped the ravages of war, were made practically acquainted with them by Saxe, who, having completely subdued the Austrian Netherlands, invaded and overran Dutch Flanders, routed the unfortunate duke of Cumberland at Laffeldt (July 2), while his celebrated chief of engineers, count Lowendal, after a two months' siege, took Bergen-op-Zoom, Cohorn's masterpiece, a fortress believed by the Dutch to be impregnable. At the commencement of 1748, Britain, France, and Holland sought to bring about a peace, and agreed among themselves to certain preliminaries, which were submitted to Austria and Sardinia; but as one of them was the surrender of Parma and Placentia to Don Philip of Spain, the former refused her consent; and her two allies, disgusted at her disregard of the sacrifices they had made on her behalf, at once signed the preliminaries (April 30), and Austria sullenly followed suit on May 18. Much discussion followed, but on Oct. 18, 1748, the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (q. v.) put an end to this most disastrous war, which left the Hapsburgs in possession of their hereditary dominions, with the exception of Silesia and some of their Italian provinces. See AIXLA-CHAPELLE.

SUCCIN'IC ACID, C2H4(CO2H)2, derives its name from its having been originally found in amber (Lat. succinum), and is one of the group of dibasic acids of the oxalic acid series, whose general formula is CH2-204. Succinic acid occurs as a natural constituent not only in amber, but also in the resins of many of the pine tribe, in the leaves of the lettuce and wormwood; and, in the animal kingdom, it has been detected in the fluids of hydatid cysts and hydrocele, in the parenchymatous juices of the thymus gland of the calf, and of the pancreas and thyroid gland of the ox.

One of the most important points in connection with succinic acid is its convertibility into tartaric acid, while tartaric acid may in its turn be reconverted into succinic acid.

SUCCOTASH (Indian, msickquatash) is an article of food common in the United States, and is made of corn and beans boiled together. The dish, as well as the name, originated with the Narragansett Indians.

SUCCORY. See CHICORY.

SUCCOTH, or SUKKOTH, one of the Egyptian "treasure cities" built by the captive Israelites for Pharaoh. The archæological interest which has always surrounded the locality of this city was renewed by the publication of The Store City of Pithom and the Route of the Exodus, by Edouard Naville, of the Egyptian exploring expedition, 1885. It is shown by reasonably conclusive evidence that the modern settlement of Tell-elMaskhůtah is the site of the ancient Succoth. The stone of Pithom," unearthed by M. Naville, is as important a discovery as was that of the Rosetta stone, as it bears strong testimony to the identification of the modern with the ancient site. On this stone the god Sept is called "the great god of Succoth;" Rameses II. is styled "the lord of Succoth;" another inscription reads: "All the priests who go into the sacred abode of Tam, the great god of Succoth;" finally, the hawk of black granite engraved on the stone, and known to have been the emblem of Harmechis, with the oval of Rameses II., seems to confirm the biblical record, and to fix the date at that given by Old Testament scholars as the time of the building of the city. The hieroglyphic form of the name is Thurku, or Thukut, which, by well-understood philological laws, was rendered Succoth by the Hebrews. It is also discovered that Tell-el-Maskhûtah is the site of the Heroopolis of the Greeks.