stitutions, though not yet in perfect organi. I founded, being about half as much as the zation, are in that state of progression which whole quantity made in France, and nearly promises well for the prosperity and happi. one-fourth of that in Great Britain. We ness of the people.

need not describe Mr. Cockerill's gigantic Our present purpose is not political, but establishment at Seraing, which with steam to offer some information illustrative of the engines of not less in the whole than 1000 institutions and state of society in the Belgic horse power, and 3000 workmen, sends provinces. We have sympathized deeply forth daily for use, some 25 tons of machinewith this people both in its original strug- ry of every description. We heard with gles for independence, and its subsequent regret of the late temporary embarrassment diplomatic martyrdom by means of the of this distinguished house, but with the aid so thousand and one protocols. We shall, timely and judiciously afforded by the Govhowever, confine ourselves here to a passing ernment, are glad to find it has resumed the expression of regret at the dismemberment activity which for the moment was suspend. of the territory, whereby 350,000 in habit- ed. The cloth manufacture, in which, at ants of Limburg and Luxemburg have Verviers alone, 40,000 workmen are enagainst their will been made subjects of gaged, employs in its various branches a Holland. Our observations will be limited capital equal to three millions sterling. The to the following heads;

linen manufacture, principally in the two 1st. Industrial Operations.

Flanders, gives employment to 400,000 2d. Education.

persons, and the annual production is esti. 3d. Crime and Prisons.

mated at four millions and a half sterling.

The cotton manufacture, notwithstanding INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS.

the loss of the Dutch colonial markets, has There can be little question in regard to the steadily improved since 1830, and now elements of wealth which Belgium contains represents a capital of at least three millions within herself, and we shall record them sterling. The manufacturers begin to find briefly. It will suffice to stale, that the pop. the natural home-consumption more advan. ulation of the Belgic provinces is now near tageous than a forced foreign market, and four millions and a half,* and that the works we were informed, during a recent visit to ing classes, who form about three-fourths of Ghent, that notwithstanding the loss of the that number, are in their general character artificial stimulus of the Dutch fund called industrious and frugal. A feriile soil, nine. the “Million of Industry," there were 52 elevenths of which is under actual cultiva- cotton-factories in full activity. The lace tion, and an agriculture so advanced as :o and silk manufaciures are also thriving. For. be in some respects a model to other coun- eign commerce has, to a certain extent, chang. tries, produce annually about twice the ed its direction, but there can be no doubt of quantity of corn required for home.con. its being in a healthy state. The value of the sumption. The average price of wheat imports, on an average of the two last years throughout Belgium in the year 1836, which before us, (1834 and 1835) was 212 mil. may be taken as a fair average year, was, lions of francs, and that of the exports, 148 in English computation, 35s. 20. per quar- millions of francs. The reader may be

, ter. The small cultivators are in tolerably surprised to hear that a considerable part of easy circumstances, and the flourishing this trade was carried on with Holland, notstate of agriculture operates favourably upon withstanding the nominal warlike status manufacturing industry, every branch of lately existing; the imports from that enewhich is in full activity. The coal mines my averaged 25 millions, and the exports of the province of Hainault alone produce 16 1-2 millions. The Belgians even sup; more than those of all France together, and plied the Durch with arms to be used the annual quantity of coal raised in Belgi- against themselves ! The diminution of um exceeds 2,600,000 chaldrons. The iron the trade of Antwerp we believe to be a mines of Liege, Limburg, and Luxemburg, mere phantasm of the Orangists; the truth were never worked so extensively. Up- being that some large capitalists have sufwards of 150,000 tons of iron are annually fered by the change of circumstances, and

that the trade has passed from the hands of * On 31st December, 1836, it was ascertained to a few, into a wider and more beneficial be 4,242,600. + In August, 1838, wheat had risen in Belgium ter the port of Antwerp is considerably

range. The number of ships that now eii. to the rate of 50s. 6d. per English quarter, but it will be remembered that at the same period the greater than it was at any time during the average of England and Wales had risen to 728. union with Holland, as the following figures 11d. per quarter.

.

.

Year.
Ships.

Tonnage. ant branch is that of primary or popular in. 1829 1031

138,945

struction, of the actual condition of which M. 1830

722

123,407

Ducpétiaux has furnished us with a very 1832 1258

145,639

complete account in the work before us. 1834 1065

133,206 Public instruction may be entirely unre. 1836 1250

176,461 stricted, as in England; or it may be placed 1837 1426

225,759 under the exclusive control of the govern. The capital invested in commercial specula. inent; or a mixed system may be adopted, of tions in Belgium must altogether be very vesting the general superintendence in the considerable indeed. Upwards of 300 mil government, but with liberty to individuals lions of francs have, since the year 1833, of teaching, and keeping schools, without any been invested in the Societés anonymes, which previous permission of the government for are exclusively restricted to manufacturing that purpose. Before the Belgic Revolu. operations. The amount of property insur- tion, the government had the exclusive su. ed in eleven assurance offices in Belgium perintendence, by virtue of a clause, in the was, in 1837, 1,786,832,222 francs, exclu. fundamental law of the Netherlands, to this sive of marine assurances, and of the value effect :-"L'instruction est un objet constant of 200 millions of francs insured in foreign des soins du gouvernement. Le roi fait rencountries. The capital invested in the So- dre compte tous les ans aux états généraux cieté generale pour favoriser l'Industrie is de l'état des écoles supérieures, moyennes, 105 millions of francs; that of the Sociele et inférieures,”—subject to a concurrent sur. des Capitalistes re-unis, 50 millions; and of veillance of the athénées and colleges by the the Societé des Actions re-unis, 40 millions; municipal authorities. The primary schools and although the Banque de la Belgique, were superintended by provincial boards nowith a capital of 20 millions, lately suspend. minated by the government

, and all teachers ed its payments, that unfortunate event does were subjected to examination, and to renot appear to have given any serious shock ceive diplomas, or certificates of capacity, to banking and trading operations in general. without which they were prohibited from To these indications of natural wealth, we teaching at all. The line of examination will only add, that the progress of the

taken was such that the Catholic clergy

sys. tematic lines of railways, ordered to be con. could not conscientiously submit to it; and structed by the law of the 1st of May, 1834, so much was required of the candidates, that has already advanced so far, that a direct the competition of private teachers with the communication is open both between Antwerp public schoolmasters was gradually exclud. and Brussels, and across the whole exient of ed, and numbers of private boarding and day lhe kingdom from Ostend to Liege. The schools were obliged to be discontinued. The undertaking is not only profitable to the gov. government succeeded in monopolizing to it. ernment, but, what is very important, places self the education of the people upon the the means of locomotion within the reach of Dutch system;* and whatever may be the all classes of the population, the fares being merits of that system in other respects, it properly fixed as low as possible.* We will was obviously so inappropriate to the cir. not dwell on a maier of such notoriely as cumstances of Belgium, that it is no great the facilities of communication which these wonder the Belgians regarded it as an injury railways are opening, not only belween all and an insult

, and that it formed in fact one parts of the Belgic provinces, but eventually of the proximate causes of the Revolution. between the east and west of Europe. The The right of private instruction had always Belgian line will be extended in the one di- been free in Belgium at all former periods of rection to the Rhine, and in the other to Pa. her history. Education had, in truth, been ris, and with it the commerce of Belgium practically neglected, both by her Austrian cannot but acquire a large prospective in. and French rulers. Joseph II., indeed, crease of activity and expansion.

made some laudable efforts; among which

was one for the establishment of normal EDUCATION.

schools, but they resulted in nothing; and The educational institutions of Belgium the legislation of the French revolutionary are of three kinds,—the primary schools, the period also failed, principally by reason of colleges or secondary schools, and the uni- its making the national instruction contin. versities. Of these, by far the most import- gent upon its being solicited by the inhabit. the people any where, as experience has, Chamber. Soon afterwards the Revolution fully shown. The Dutch system, with all of September destroyed at once the Dutch its faults, was far more successful than any dominion in Belgium, and the system of inprevious educational experiment that had struction, which it had introduced into our been made in Belgium. It appears that in

country."--Vol. i. p. 61. the interval of eleven years, between 1817 The constitution of the new kingdom of and 1828, the number of pupils frequenting Belgium proclaimed the general freedom of the public schools had increased from instruction in these terms:-"L'enseigne. 152,898 to 247,496, and the amount of sa. ment est libre : toute mesure preventive est laries paid to the communal teachers, from interdite : la repression des delits n'est réglée 157,580 to 488,150 francs.

In the same

que par la loi. L'instruction publique don. space of time 1146 schools and 668 teachers' née aux frais de l'etat, est également réglée houses were built or repaired; 1977 mas

par la loi."* The new government abdicat. ters and 168 mistresses were licensed; and ed entirely all the coercive powers exercised the revenue raised from the communes, the by the Dutch king and the provincial boards provinces and the state, for educational pur- acting under him, and limited the superin. poses, was gradually augmenting. These tendence of the latter to the schools support. facts are candidly recorded by M. Ducpé. ed by the public treasury either wholly or in tiaux, who fully admits the benefits which part. Diplomas, though permitted, were no the country derived from the Dutch system. longer obligatory, and inspectors were apThe methods of teaching were improved; pointed on the recommendation of the proone normal school was established, as well vincial states (the elective body.) Finally, as several model schools, in the great towns; the provincial boards were wholly suppressand the provincial juries put the schools into ed by a decree of the Regent, reserving only organization with an efficiency which, if free to the government the right of inspecting the competition had been permitted, would have schools paid by the state, as it should deem been highly desirable. But no system of fit ;—a right, however, which hitherto it has policy could be lasting which was so deci

not thought proper to exercise. dedly opposed to the great principles of so.

The constitutional charter evidently concial justice and religious toleration, and which templated a subsequent law for the regulainterfered so directly with the national lan- tion of public instruction, and commissioners guage and feelings. Accordingly M. Duc: were appointed, in 1831 and 1834, for this pétiaux informs us that in 1828 its downfall purpose, who framed two distinct projets de was preparing

loi ; but neither of them has been adopted

by the legislature. At present, therefore, “ From 1828 began to show itself, in the instruction in Belgium is subject to no legissouthern provinces, the reaction of opinion lative enactment beyond the general disposiagainst the monopoly assumed by the state tions of the constitution. The government in regard to instruction. That system, to which the liberals had at first given their has no power, except as regards the schools consent and support, but which the Catholics in the pay of the staie ; the rest depends upon had received with reserve, was openly at- the pleasure of individuals and the caprice tacked by both in its tendencies, avowed or of ihe communal councils, who in many secret. It was reproached with admitting cases have refused any aid whatever out of no competition, and converting education the funds of the commune. Thus the cominto an instrument of Dutch and Protestant munal schools on the Dutch system have, in propagandism; the proscription of the teaching religious congregations who had refused their turn, been forced to give way to private to submit to the forms of examinations and schools, of an inferior description : bad degrees, excited also just reprehension. The school-masters have taken the place of good substitution of the Duich for the French lan- ones; and there is no longer any normal guage in many schools, the disgust of the school in existence. The allowance to the teachers who refused to comply with the prescribed rules, the sort of discretionary and although in some towns (especially at

government schools is considered insufficient; power exercised by the inspectors of districts in the name of the government-stirred up

Ghent and Liege) the inhabitants have exinterests and susceptibilities easy to be ex- erted themselves to keep up their schools, cited and alarmed. "In spite of the decided things are, upon the whole, in so unsatisfachostility of public opinion, the government, tory a state, that in Brussels, according to in 1829, determined to propose to the legis. M. Ducpétiaux, the proportion of children lature a project of law intended to redress atiending the primary schools is scarcely 1 grievances, based upon the principle of the in 20 of the population of the city.f free exercise of instruction. But this law was withdrawn in the month of May in the + Art. 17. following year, in consequence of the discus- + These remarks were made at the close of the sions to which it gave rise in the Second | year 1838.

It cannot excite surprise that, under this together ought to contain 600,000 pupils ; do-nothing system, education in Belgium whereas they are only attended by about should rather have retrograded than made 420,000, of whom 185,000 are girls, who progress since the Revolution. At least one. are therefore worse off in proportion than third of the rising generation (M. Ducpétiaux the boys, the numbers of both sexes in Bel. considers one-half) are absolutely without gium being nearly equal. The following any regular instruction ; for, reckoning to table compiled from the official returns, wil every seven inhabitants one child of a fit age show the numbers receiving instruction at for school, the public and private schools periods before and since the Revolution :

The provinces of Luxemburg and Namur , measure, in the shape of a projet de loi, are those in which instruction is the most which has been favourably received by en. widely, and the two Flanders and Liege lightened persons in Belgium, and is not un. those in which it is the least diffused. Com. worthy of attention in other countries. His paring Belgium with other countries, in re- plan is briefly this. Primary instruction is spect to the diffusion of instruction, she to be declared either private or public. Pri. stands just below Austria, and just above vate schools to continue unrestricted in England. She is several steps above France every respect, except that their existence is and Ireland, but falls very short of Holland, to be notified to the authorities. The public the Swiss cantons, Prussia, Bavaria, Scot. primary schools to be of three kinds, viz. land, the United States, and of every coun- guardian schools for children from two to try indeed where education is pretty widely six years old : elementary schools, in which spread.

are to be taught morals and religion, reading, But it is not the mere deficiency of in. writing, and arithmetic, weights and mea. struction that is to be lamented. It rarely sures, and the French or German language, happens that anything is taught beyond the according to circumstances : and superior elements of reading and writing, and in the primary schools, in which the instruction is summer season one half of the children enu. to be still further advanced. The number of merated as scholars are employed in the schools to be on a scale in proportion to the fields, and do not attend school at all. The population.

The population. Model, and normal schools, increase of private schools affords of itself a unions of teachers, and circulating libraries, strong presumption of the inferiority of the to be also established. All parents either teachers; for, whilst in 1828 there were to send their children to the public schools, only 2145 teachers with diplomas attesting or to provide sufficiently for their instruction their capacity, we have seen that in 1836 elsewhere, from the age of six to fourteen there were no less than 5622 schools, and years. Teachers to be appointed by the reckoning but one teacher to each, we have communal councils, on the recommendation thus more than 3000 teachers of whose fit of local committees. Committees of ex. ness no proof has been given. All these amination to be appointed for each province. circumstances concur in showing the very The primary schools to be maintained by the bad state into which the education of the communes, the model schools by the provin. people has fallen in Belgium, and the neces.ces, and the normal schools by the state. sity of the legislature's adopting some early An inspector-general to be appointed for the and decisive measures for its improvement. kingdom; and reports to be made period.

M. Ducpétiaux, who is never weary of ically 10 gorernment and the Chambers. promoting the welfare of his countrymen, Such is M. Ducpétiaux's plan, which devel. has, in the work before cited, suggested alopes a more complete system than that of

either of the commissions referred to, and The freedom of university instruction is the leading features of which are by no almost as complete as that of the schools. means unlikely to be adopted by the legis. Universities have been erected quite inde. lature.

pendently of the government, and without It has been well observed by M. Ducpé. being in any way responsible to it for the tiaux, that a system of national instruction system pursued. Degrees, however, can would lead incidentally to the correction of only be conferred by the central body, called that enormous evil,—the over-working of "le jury d'examen," at Brussels, composed children in the factories. There is at pre- of members of the several universities, out seni no legislation in Belgium on this sub- of whom the jury is selected which assigns ject, and there are to be seen in the manu. the university honours. Both the private factories at Ghent, Liege, and Verviers, and the state universities are equally obliged thousands of young persons, whose pale and to resort to this central jury for their de. etiolated faces proclaim the rapid decay of grees; but, beyond this, their systems of their health and strength. Their hours of education are not subjected to any standard labour are thirteen and even fourteen hours or rule. daily. We are well aware of the difficulties The idea of a free university originated of restricting factory-labour, without placing with the Catholic party, who did not, howthe manufacturing interest itself in jeopardy, ever, give their establishment the title of and we are inclined to think a general edu. Catholic, until the liberal party had begun to cational law would in all countries prove a set up another in opposition. It was opened, better remedy than any special legislation in under a bull of institution from the Pope, in regard to working hours.

November, 1834, at Mechlin, with all the The second or intermediate branch of éclat of a high mass, and a Latin oration Belgian education, consists at present of the from the rector, (the Abbé de Ram,) demon. colleges, or Athénées, established in all the strating the consistency of the Catholic faith large towns. These are maintained princi- with the progress of the arts and sciences; pally by the inhabitants, but receive in addi. and it was afterwards, by the favour of the tion some aid from the state. The classics, government, removed to Louvain, the seat modern languages, history, geography, and of the most ancient University of Belgium, the mathematical and physical sciences, are and recently of the Philosophical College, taught pretty much upon the Dutch system. with which King William so injudiciously Beside these, there are other colleges for scandalized his Catholic subjects. The general education, under the exclusive man- Catholic University has unquestionably been agement of the clergy. The Jesuits alone a successful attempt ;

its numbers have have established four,—at Brussels, Namur, gradually increased from 86 in its first ses. Alost, and Ghent, These are intended to sion, 10 between 400 and 500, and it bids compete with the Athénées in the education fair to become an important post of clerical of all classes, and it may easily be supposed ascendency and Catholic propagandism. are conducted with a more marked religious The Liberal University was founded in bias. They are distinct from the theological Brussels within a few days after its rival. seminaries, established in each diocese, for In addition to the ordinary course of study, the special training of the priesthood. The it claims the merit of a fifth faculty, dedicated schools of industry, of painting, music, &c., to political and administrative science, with a belong also to this branch of education. view to the qualification of students for pub. They are numerous and well attended. lic life. It numbers among its professors

Belgium contains four universities ; two men of considerable distinction in science of the States, at Liege and Ghent, which and philosophy, but these professors have existed also during the union with Ilolland; been very inadequately remunerated. The the Catholic University of Louvain, founded liberals have not, in fact, supported their by the clergy; and the free University of university so well as the Catholics, whose Brussels, established by private association. zeal in the cause has been quite overflowing. The number of students, according to the But there is, we trust, no fear of Brussels last returns before us, was as follows:- being able to maintain an institution so pe.

culiarly adapted to prepare the Belgian Liege (Session 1837-8)

317 youth for a sphere of public usefulness in Ghent do.

260 after-life. Brussels do. Louvain, (1 January, 1838)

We cannot stay to inquire here into the 416

many important considerations which occur Total number receiving superior in

in arranging a scheme of national educastruction

But there is one point upon which its success in Belgium will probably depend

210

1203 tion.