"God will not require of any but according to his power; to each shall be what he gained, and on each what he incurred. Thou, Lord, wilt not scan too nicely our neglects or our offences. Thou wilt not load us with a covenant as thou loadest those before usThou wilt not put upon us what we cannot bear. Thou wilt spare us-Thou wilt forgive us. s.-Thou wilt pity us.-Thou art our God. Oh, defend us against the unbelieving."-Chap. 2.

Zinaba

"To God belongs all, in heaven and earth; | ly authority. The 33d chapter furnishes and whether you show what is in your us with a still heavier charge. In a casual thoughts or conceal it, he will lay it alike to visit Mahomet was smitten with the charms your account; for his power is unlimited. of Zinaba, the wife of his freedman Zeid. "The prophet has believed in what was re- The affectionate follower balanced not a vealed to him, and all the faithful believe in God-in the angels, the scriptures, and the moment between his own inclinations and prophets, among whom is no variance; and those of his friend and master. say, we have heard and obeyed; merciful was divorced by Zeid, and married by art Thou, O Lord; unto Thee shall we be Mahomet. But Zeid having been previtaken. ously adopted by Mahomet, the marriage, by the existing laws of Arabia, was incestuous. This to a Prophet was a trifling objection; the laws that made it so were condemned and abrogated; and the hesitating Moslims were assured by the word of God that Mahomet was irreproachable. Yet even this was not enough. The legal number of wives to which the faithful were to confine themselves had been fixed at four; the Prophet, however, is exempted from this and every other restriction on his connubial caprices; while his harem is secured from the attempts or wishes of his followers by the divine declaration, that the Prophet's wives must be regarded as mothers by the rest. This revolting interposition of heaven in his domestic arrangements is carried a step farther; and the word of God is at last employed to reprehend two of his wives— for resenting, with the sacred pride of women, an act of infidelity in which they had detected him.

In another chapter, where he is desiring his followers to avoid disputes with the Jews and Christians, he tells them, when pressed on points of faith, to submit the question to a divine ordeal. The disputants were to kneel down with their wives and children and invoke the curse of God upon the erring party-what a singular contrast between the strength of his conviction and the weakness of his cause!The pretensions are unfit for belief that will not bear discussion-and yet the man who in an ignorant and superstitious age could solemnly submit a claim of inspiration to the immediate judgment of God, MUST have believed all that he averred.

We now arrive at those singular and important chapters, 49, 33, 24, and 66, from which it seems evident that whatever may have been Mahomet's own opinion of the impulses by which he was conducted, they had really no deeper or holier origin than his own bosom. While at Mecca, he had constantly disclaimed any other authority over his followers than that which the sacred duty of admonition might give him; but six years of absolute power and continued success had altered his tone. His followers are now told that they are not to speak to the Prophet so familiarly as they would to each other; that they are not to raise their voices in his presence, nor call to him when he wishes to be private; that they are not to enter his house unbidden, nor to discourse on ordinary topics while they are there; and lastly, that no one is to have a will of his own when the Prophet's pleasure has been declared. It will not escape the reader that all these tributes of respect are necessary consequences of Mahomet's general pretensions. It is his jealousy in insisting on them and producing the divine mandate for their observance, which betrays the exacting feelings of earth

It would be well if the effect of Mahomet's weakness in all that concerned his favourite passion had been confined to the days in which he lived; but society still suffers from another instance of it. His favourite wife Ayesha had been separated from the camp, under circumstances which gave him much uneasiness; from this he was relieved by the 24th chapter, which assured him of her innocence, and ordained that no respectable female should suffer in character till four witnesses could be found to depose to the fact; and any one who called it in question on insufficient grounds was to be publicly scourged. A worse law was never promul. gated. No woman who is criminal enough to bring herself under its scope, will be clumsy enough to allow these means of proof to be forthcoming. The offence is necessarily secret; and suspicion, instead of mer. iting the scourge, is a useful substitute for the legal punishment that must generally be escaped. Such as it was, however, it was most unjustly enforced in the very case that suggested it; and the stripes of Ayesha's accusers furnished a most edifying and convincing evidence of her innocence. Yet the Moslims confess that the most virulent was suffered to escape, because he was a person of consideration and influence; so incon

1

ceivable are the inconsistencies which fana., to return unmolested. Nothing could have ticism can reconcile to itself.

saved the party and the religion from exterIf there were ever moments in which, ac- mination, but one of those conventional points cording to the immortal historian of declin- of rude morality which are sometimes found ing Rome, the victorious impostor smiled at to prevail among a barbarous people, with a his early credulity, they were certainly force exactly proportioned to their essential these, in which he unblushingly legislated insignificance,-as if by an unconscious infor his own dignity and his own indulgence. stinct of society the blindest deference was The supposition, however, is one on which to be exacted from the feeling, when least it will be difficult to account for Mahomet's could be commanded from the judgment. behaviour in every other particular during Amidst the chaos of anarchy and outrage the sequel of his lite; and if we attentively which the entire peninsula has always preconsider his situation, we shall perhaps be sented, four months had been set apart from able to form a more consistent conclusion. the earliest periods for the annual season Nearly twenty years had elapsed since he' of universai truce. Singularly tenacious experienced the illusions in which his con- were the Arabs of this their last homage to victions originated; and after that period, the duties and dignities of civilized life; and the form in which his regulations were is the wild rovers of the desert, who knew no sued must have become habitual. Success, other law, amerced themselves for all their which was to him the confirmation of all he excesses, by the undeviating strictness with imagined, had been immediately owing, he which they adhered to this. Mahomet then must have felt, to his own energy and con. must not be considered to have taken this duct—to his own actions and his own feel. singular step without something like a shaings. What wonder if at length he consider• dow of safeguard to his party on definite and ed a union so long undissolved as indissolu. demonstrable grounds. Of all the months ble, and forgot in the casuistry of self for that were thus held sacred to repose, the self, the sober limits by which divine inter- most sacred was that in which the pilgrimposition must be confined?

age was taken; and throughout all the The

very next incident to which the Ko. peninsula, in which outrage was then crimi. rann (ch. 48) alludes, shows that Mahomet nal, it was most criminal in the precincts of was still governed by his imaginations. the city he now approached. But the tempHaving been all along engaged in war with tation offered was immense :—the long score the Meccans, it was impossible for the Mos- of suffering and indignity that might be lims to perform the sacred pilgrimage to the wiped away—the fair prospect of peace and Caaba, which Mahomet had made a funda- supremacy that might be secured at a blow, mental part of his religion. In the sixth which the unguardedness that provoked year, however, he informed them of a dream would almost seem at the same time to jus. with which he had been savoured, according tify--this must have been no light consider. to the obvious interpretation of which, he ation among an impetuous people and to a assured ther, that they would that year gain falling party. That the situation and the admittance to the temple, and perform all opportunity was felt on both sides we know the sacred ceremonies prescribed on the oc- from what followed. A treaty was con. casion. On the faith of this, with unexam. cluded, in which Mahomet granted peace to pled simplicity, he set out at the appointed his bitterest enemies, on condition of his betime, accompanied by the chiefs only of his ing allowed to make the pilgrimage in fufollowers, unprepared either to offer or resist ture—the Coreysh being bound to evacuate attack, and trusting for the accomplishment the city as soon as he approached it. In of his prediction to some secret exertion on his eagerness to conclude the agreement, the the hearts of his enemies of the same high Prophet waived, in the wording of it, the influence by which he professed to have been high pretensions he had so strictly maintainassured. No such solution of the difficulty, ed on all other occasions. Nay he was either miraculous or accidental, was fated to obliged to acquiesce in present disappoint. befall him. As they approached Mecca, the ment as the only price ai which he could Coreysh met him by a short and stern man obtain the remote and contingent accomplishdate prohibiting his further advance; and the ment of his predictions. In resisting their disconcerted prophet suddenly found himself present entry into Mecca the Coreysh were not only deceived and the deceiver of o: hers, in flexible, and the Moslims were compelled in respect of what he had so confidently an. to retreat with only the promise of the pronounced, but thrown by his own credulity, mise they had come to fulfil. with all the moral strength of his party, into the treaty was observed on both sides, and the reach of their enemies ;-a species of the attachment of the Moslims to the city of - hostage for his better behaviour is allowed their faith, was augmented by the joy

The next year

14

Views and Objects of Mahomet in the Composition of the Korann.

Oct.

of performing their long-delayed rites. out involving us in serious inconsistencies. Strengthened by the submission of fresh In its professed object and primary tendentribes, they panted for an opportunity of secies, the religion he preached was infinitely curing it for ever to their feelings and their superior to that he supplanted, and singularfaith. To persons so disposed, the occasion ly suited to the characters of his country. could not long be wanting. The Coreysh men. And if the wisdom of Providence has had joined in hostility against a tribe in the on other occasions adapted its dispensations alliance of the Moslims. Mahomet declared to peculiarities of civilisation, and given one the treaty was infringed, and produced the nation laws that were not fitted for another, 9th chapter of the Korann, containing the and precepts in which they could not live, decisive declaration that after that year no we cannot now reject another system beidolator should approach the Caaba. The cause it contains some and fewer imperfeccomposition was instantly dispatched to the tions of a similar kind. Inspiration seems Coreysh, and Mahomet followed with an always to have acted within the limits of army of 10,000 men. The situation of the character and country, and those who adtwo parties was here precisely the reverse mit David to have lived under the guidance of what it had been on the previous occasion. and in the favour of God, cannot altogether The Meccans were taken by surprise, and object to similar claims in another. having themselves in a manner infringed on the law of the sacred truce in their conduct to the tribe whose cause Mahomet espoused, they were justly held by him to have forfeited all claim to benefit by it on the present occasion. Unprepared for resistance, submission was their only resource, and Abu Sufian, the Prophet's most determined foe, waited on him with the keys of the city. What follows is the touchstone of Mahomet's character. His bitter insulters, his unrelenting enemies were in his power, and he pardoned them!-those who declined embracing his faith, being left at liberty to go where they pleased. The conquest of Mecca was speedily followed by the submission of the provinces of Yaman and Najd; and Mahomet found himself the political and religious head of his country. With this, the historical part of our article concludes. A few passages of the 48th, 9th, 8th, and 5th chapters there are which were composed in the following year; but the interest of the Korann terminates, together with the opposition it met with, and the difficulties under which it was produced.

On this, as on many other importan questions, we must be content for the pres ent to come to a conclusion less certain than we should wish to arrive at; and in the equipoise of more decisive arguments, the reader's judgment will perhaps be satisfied with the following considerations. Mahomet's system was not uniform it began in peace and humility, and ended in arrogance and havoc. Contradictions so serious as these bespeak the inconsistent emotions of human feeling, rather than the steady guidance of unalterable wisdom; and whatever allowance we may be inclined to make for those necessary tendencies of disposition which cannot be banished without destroying personal identity, we cannot sup pose that absolute guilt, or even particular indulgence, should be sanctioned and defended by the word of God. But by the distinct admission of Mahomet and all his followers, the question mainly rests on the inspiration of his scripture, and the whole pile of Moslim faith and Moslim arrogance falls with the authority of the Korann. But it is impossible to degrade Mahomet A slight consideration will convince as a prophet without exalting him as a man. that Mahommedanism is neither to If superiority to the prejudices of age and be assailed nor defended by the arguments country-if perseverance in a sacred cause, usually resorted to. Neither the perfect conviction of Mahomet and his contemporaries, nor the rapid and unlimited conquests of his successors, can be admitted as a proof of his real inspiration. Credence equally implicit, and in the beginning equal ly extended, has been given in various ages of the world to tenets, to all of which it is impossible to subscribe. Invasions, equally extensive and equally successful, have often been produced by the unpretending impulses of want and ferocity. On the other hand, no considerations drawn from the character of the pretender, or the actual nature of the faith he established, can be insisted on with

us

ART. II.-Geschichte der Magyaren (His- and with well-merited distinction.

Earl

tory of the Magyars), von Johann, Grafen Johann has preferred the service of the mus. Mailath. 5 vols. 8vo. Wien. 1828-es to that of the state; but even in his pur 1831.

suit of "this idle trade" he has been actu. ated by patriotic impulses, and has made TIME has been when Hungary constituted the fame of Hungary one of his great litera politically important part of Europe; when ary objects. As a poet he has translated upon that remote, and now unregarded her ancient Magyar poetry into German, as eastern province, the eyes of the continent noticed in a former number;* he has colwere bent, first in terror, afterwards in anx- lected her early traditions and legends; and ious, trembling hope. At an early period he now stands forward in the graver capaof modern history, when the Carlovingian city of her historian. In these various dynasty was sinking towards final extinc- branches of literature Count Mailáth has tion, from Hungary issued the swarms of earned the general esteem, as well of his Magyars who for upwards of half a century Magyar compatriots as of the Teutonic overran and desolated those parts of Europe literati. All his works are popular in Gerwhich by geographical position had escap- many; and in the last volume of his history ed the predatory incursions of the Danes and Normans. And at a later period, when the Ottoman hosts threatened to overwhelm Christendon, Hungary was the bulwark of civilized Europe, the theatre upon which the wars of the Cross and the Crescent were hourly waged.

he speaks with gratitude of the favourable verdicts pronounced by the tribunals of criticism upon the preceding volumes, as they separately appeared.

To give in our narrow limits an analysis of these five volumes, unconnected with this country or with the political excitement of Those times are past; and to the rest of the day, is of course out of the question. the world Hungary is now no more than a But we conceive that a rapid survey of the province of the Austrian empire; though history of Hungary, or rather perhaps of its certainly an important province, with a tenour and character, in proof of our remarks, population superior to that of many modern may be satisfactory to the reader. With kingdoms, being in round numbers twelve such a sketch therefore we shall introduce millions. Its history, therefore, which the extracts that appear most interesting, would once have commanded the universal characteristic, and national. attention of the reading public, can now hope only for such notice as its own independent and intrinsic interest may attract. That this interest is however by no means inconsiderable, needs scarcely be stated; for to what Christian heart can the country be indifferent, that so long struggled singlehanded against the all-subduing Turks, and that, when it fell, fell a victim for the gener al safety.

Count Mailáth commences his history somewhat abruptly, with the irruption of the Magyars into Hungary, taking no notice of their origin or former home. This omis. sion, if omission it be, is amply atoned by the insertion, as an appendix, in three of his volumes, of dissertations translated from the Magyar of the national antiquaries, Georg von Fejer and Stephen Howath, and designed to prove that nation a branch of the Parthians or Turks. This is a topic important to the Magyars and to the investigators of such ethnological questions; but having adverted to it in the article already cited, we shall imitate our historian and begin with the occupation of Hungary.

But this is not the sole interest belonging to the land of the Magyars. It has produced splendid feats of heroism and romantic adventures, and has given birth to men in whom, however tainted with the vices of their age, the proudest country might exult. The aristocratic freedom and privileges of In the year 889 the Magyars, under their the Magyars themselves offer, even in the leader Arpad, crossed the Carpathian moun. present day, a lingering remnant of feudal tains from Galicia and invaded Hungary, ism; and the generous spirit with which then parcelled out amongst several petty they supported, and effectively supported lords and princes. Some strategical skill Maria Theresa, when assailed by the ra- the Magyars we are told even then display. pacious and perjured sovereigns of Europe, ed; inasmuch as they always detached a may be termed the last gleam of European part of their army to fall upon the flank or chivalry. rear of the enemy whom the main body atGraf (Earl) Mailáth who, in the volumes tacked in front: this appears to have remainnow before us, has made this land of vi-ed their favourite manœuvre so long as cissitudes and this lofty-souled nation known they had an independent army. It was in o Germany, is himself a Magyar, of a high family, serving their country officially

See vol. iii.

the ninth century more than sufficient for i Comes parochianus, then of Comes supremus, the conquest of Hungary, a conquest cha. and lastly of Obergespan; that guilds and corracterized rather by ravage and devastation porations, often composed of immigrants, than by open flight. From that moment, existed with especial privileges; and that, as stated, the Magyars under Arpad and whilst there was a class of free peasants, his posterity overran, plundered, and deso the lower orders were villeins or serfs. It lated Germany, France, Italy, and the rather seems that the nobles, even if bound Greek empire as far as Constantinople, in to military service, did not hold their estates flicting all the miseries attendant upon bar- in vassalage; because it is mentioned, as a barian inroads. These horrors were first distinct condition of tenure, that the king checked in the year 955, when the Empe. granted lands attached to the royal castles ror Otho the Great defeated the Magyars in vassalage, and in consideration of militaupon the river Lech, so completely anni. ry service, to an intermediate class of perhilating the marauding host that, it is re- sons. Justice was administered in every ported, only seven of the invaders survived county by the Comes in person; and the to carry home the tidings of disaster. ordeal by fire or water, and judicial com bat,

Shortly afterwards began the conversion were the usual modes of eliciting truth. In of the Magyars to Christianity, introduced case of war the free peasants and commu. here as elsewhere chiefly by female influ, nities were bound to send every tenth, or ence. The Christian dame Sarolta, herself sometimes every eighth man to form the a converted Magyar, who exercised this banderium or disposable force of the county. influence over her countrymen and their After St. Stephen's death the claims of prince, her husband Geisa, was neverthe different candidates for the throne gave rise less the most extraordinary of lady mission to civil wars, with foreign interference. The aries, being addicted to the bottle, and occa three sons of Bela, Geisa, St. Ladislaus, and sionally, when angered, to the sword. Her Lambert, with disinterested virtue, refused

, power was such that she prevailed upon the the crown on account of the superior rights Magyars to abandon their plundering expe. of Solomon, the son of Andreas I., their faditions, ally themselves with the Germans, ther's elder brother and predecessor; nor and learn from them the arts of life. Waik, did Geisa II. accept it until Solomon had her son by Geisa, was christened by the proved himself wholly unfit to reign. name of Stephen, and married Gisala, a sis. The male descendants of Arpad sat upon ter of the Emperor Henry II.* He was the throne of Hungary for upwards of 400 afterwards canonized, and is called by years, viz. to the end of the thirteenth centuMailáth “ the greatest man Hungarian histo.

ry:

This was a period of incessant warry can boast." St. Stephen sent an embassy fare ; proceeding partly from Magyar atto Rome to acknowledge the supremacy of tempts at conquest, many of the adjacent the Pope, from whom he obtained a crown provinces being at different times subject to and the royal title, but to whom he conced. Hungary; partly from the interference of ed little authority in Hungary. He appoint. foreign powers in civil dissensions. The ed bishops and marked out their dioceses; period was further distinguished by some he founded churches, convents, and schools. remarkable events ; as the crusades, and the He is said to have likerise given the Mag. steady advance of the Mongol hordes upon yars a political constitution ; but his laws Eastern Europe, which threatened again to are lost and forgotten: it is now only submerge just as it began to revive. Or both known that the monarchy was at once elect. Hungary was in part the scene. The earli. ive and hereditary, the individual king be est crusaders repaired by land to Palestine, ing freely chosen, but from the race of and traversed that kingdom. The disorder. Arpad ; that the nobles exercised much con. ly rabble composing the first bodies committrol over the royal authority, forming a sort ted all sorts of outrages, cruelly ravaging the of senate; that the administration was con country ; and suffered as cruelly from the ducted by great officers of state with specific vengeance of the Magyars. But with God. departments; that the country was divided frey of Bouillon King Koloman negotiated as now into counties, each governed by a the terms of his passage;

Godfrey maintain. nobleman, with the title, first it is said of ed strict discipline, and Koloman took care

that the progress of the army should be un. * Mailáth says a sister of Otho's, but no such molested, and their markets abundantly supsister of any of the Othos is known : Professor plied. The few subsequent crusades that Luden, a most diligent inquirer, says a sister of proceeded by land, were, like Godfrey's, un. Henry II.'s, and we have preferred his authority, der military government, and thence caused as Mailáthis subject to mistakes in names and genealogies ; for instance, calling Maria Theresa less evils. the grandchild of Joseph I., her uncle.

It was during the reign of Bela IV., that