after year for some twenty years. Certain animals keep growing for a century. (See LONGEVITY.) We see in domestic animals that as old age creeps on they become affected as in man. They lose their acuteness of hearing, become stiff in their limbs, and enter into a senile state.

In many forms of animal life senile characteristics become inherited in middle life. Hyatt has shown that in ammonites and other mollusks the species and type may arise as larval or immature forms, become mature, more or less special ized and ornamented, and then die out in a series of senile forms which recall those of the childhood of the type. See GROWTH.

Consult: Minot, "Senescence and Rejuvenescence," in Journal of Physiology, vol. xii. (1891); Hyatt, "Genesis of the Arietidæ," in Smithsonian Contributions (Washington, 1889); "Phylogeny of an Acquired Characteristic," in Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society (Philadelphia, 1894).

SENESCHAL, sen'e-shal (OF. seneschal, senescal, Fr. sénéchal, from ML. senescalcus, siniscalcus, from Goth. sineigs, old; connected with Ir., Gael. sean, Lith. senas, Lat. senex, Gk. Evos, henos, Skt. sana, old + skalks, servant; connected with OHG. scale, Ger. Schalk, AS. sceale, obsolete Eng. shalk, servant). Originally probably an attendant of the servile class who had the su perintendence of the household of the Frankish kings. In the course of time, however, the seneschalship rose to be a position of dignity, held no longer by persons of servile race, but by military commanders, who were also invested with judicial authority. The dignity of grand seneschal of France was the hereditary right of the dukes of Anjou. This office gave the right to command the armies in the absence of the King, control over the affairs of the King's household, and the exercise of supreme judicial authority. Philip Augustus, however, in 1191, suspended the judicial functions. The lieutenants of the chief feudatories of France often took the title of seneschal, and, as in the course of time the great fiefs were absorbed by the Crown, they were as a rule divided for judicial purposes into districts under the authority of royal officers, who retained the old name, while A

the districts were known as sénéchaussées. similar office in England and Scotland was designated steward, but is rendered into Latin as senescalcus.

SÊNG- (or SUNG-) KO-LIN-SIN, sẽng'kolen'sen'. A famous Mongol general, a prince of the Kortchin tribe, who distinguished himself in connection with the advance in 1853 of the Taiping rebels, whom he defeated twice in battle. In 1860 he was chosen to oppose the advance of the Anglo-French punitive expedition to Peking, and is noted particularly in connection therewith for the great circular mud rampart with which he surrounded Tien-tsin at a distance of two miles, and still known to foreigners as 'Seng-kolin-sin's folly.' (See TIEN-TSIN.) In operating against the Nien-fei rebels in Central China in 1864 his army was overwhelmed by superior

numbers and he was killed.

SENGO'RA. A seaport on the eastern coast of the Malay Peninsula, about 475 miles south of Bangkok (Map: Siam, D 6). Its harbor is spacious and well sheltered, and there is a considerable trade in fish, fruit, and tin. The popu

lation is estimated at about 10,000. The Chinese founded a settlement here early in the nineteenth century.

SENIGALLIA, sã’në-gäl’lê-å, or SINIGAGLIA, se'nê-gäʼlyȧ. A city in the Province of Ancona, Italy, at the mouth of the Misa, 16 miles by rail west-northwest of Ancona (Map: Italy, H 4). It is modern in appearance, having broad streets and well-built houses. It has a

are

seminary, a technical school, and a library. The industries are silk-spinning, sugar-refining, and fishing. The famous annual fairs still well attended. Senigallia was founded by the Senonian Gauls (whence the ancient name, Sena Gallica), and colonized by the Romans in B.C. 285. During the Middle Ages the Guelph and tion. At Senigallia on December 31, 1502, Cesare Ghibelline wars left the city in a ruined condiBorgia treacherously put to death a number of nobles of the Papal States whom he had enticed there under a pretext of concluding peace. In 1521 the town became a Papal possession. Population (commune), in 1901, 23,156.

SENILITY (from Lat. senilis, belonging to old age, from senex, old). The period of old age. In man the decline of life and the approach of old age is marked by special physiological conditions and pathological changes. There is no death from old age. In all cases some lesion is found which points the way to the cause

of death.

(See PATHOLOGY.) That is, some pathological change is always present which interferes with proper functionating. There are probably no cases of old age in which arteriosclerosis (q.v.) is not present. The senile kidney is a source of great danger. The respiratory apparatus of the aged is always enfeebled. Bronchitis is very common, with resulting emphysema (q.v.), and chronic disseminated pneumonia frequently is in evidence at autop

sies upon the aged. Fevers easily supervene upon infections from the digestive or urinary tracts. Especially during fevers do the respirbecome paatory phenomena of the aged tent. In the field of cardiac disorder there is always a tendency to asystole, or failure of complete contraction of the walls of the heart-a condition which occurs with considerable frequency at death. The nerve functions are all diminished. Sensibility, both general and special, is decreased, as are also the nerve reactions. The because of lessened muscular tone as well as deaged person is especially liable to traumatisms, cided fragility of the bones. Fractures of bones fail to knit. The aged patient, also, bears very are frequent, and frequently aged broken bones badly the immobilization necessary after fracture of the thigh. Atrophy and digestive disorders result very promptly, and the function of the kidneys is much altered by enforced rest. The lungs are easily invaded by hypostatic congestion. Of special diseases, gout and rheumatism are very frequent in the aged. They are also more liable to the infection of erysipelas. Epidemic influenza, or grippe, is accompanied by greater prostration, is frequently marked by general adynamia and often by cardiac atony. The pulmonary features of the disease are less evanescent than in the adult, though perhaps less acute. Typhoid fever is frequent in the aged, and begins very insidiously. Their most frequent gastric affection is cancer. Apoplexy is a very common

cause of death in old age, and cerebral softening is not uncommonly produced by the lesions of chronic endarteritis.

The precautions to be taken against the rapid advance of age include avoidance of alcohol during one's whole life; moderate eating, especially after the age of forty; moderate exercise after the age of sixty is reached, or after senescence has begun to manifest itself; avoidance of strain, physical or mental; avoidance of worry, anger, and grief; proper clothing for all seasons and conditions, and other avoidance of exposure; together with out-of-door air.

Senility is a race character. The lower or backward races mature at the age of eighteen to twenty-two, while the white race does not stop growing until the age of thirty. Some of the races which have rapidly faded away in contact with civilization had probably already entered into a senescent state. Woman outlives man. At the age of eighty, three women are living to one man, although they mature earlier than men. See LONGEVITY.

SE'NIOR, NASSAU WILLIAM (1790-1864). An English economist, born in Berkshire. He was educated at Eton and Magdalen College, Oxford, where he graduated in 1811, taking a distinguished first-class in classics. In 1819 he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn. In 1825 he was elected to the Drummond professorship of political economy at Oxford. He held it for the statutory term of five years. In 1832 the enor mous evils of the poor-law administration in England led to the appointment of a commission of inquiry. Senior was one of the commissioners, and the portion of the report in which the abuses of the existing system were detailed was drawn up by him. This report encouraged the Whig Government to bring in the Poor-Law Amendment Act of 1834. In 1836 he received the appointment of master in chancery, and in 1847 was reëlected to his former professorship for another term of five years. He served on numerous important commissions in his later years. His "Outline of Political Economy" was originally published in the Encyclopædia Metropolitana (1850). In this work and in various essays he developed the economic doctrines laid down by Ricardo and the free-trade school with much felicity of expression, which entitles him to rank as the foremost economist between Ricardo and Mill. Senior was the first writer to demonstrate clearly the subjective ground of interest payment ('abstinence' in Senior's language). His analysis of monopoly is the most important contribution of the classical school to the theory of that subject.

SENKOVSKI, sẽn-kõf'skê, OSSIP IVANOVITCH (1800-58). A Russian Orientalist and historian, born near Vilna, and educated in that city. He was professor of Oriental languages in the University of Saint Petersburg from 1822 to 1847, founded in 1834 a periodical called The Reader's Library, and in it, and in the Son of the Fatherland, published several novels under the pseudonym Baron Brambæus. He translated Morier's Hajji Baba (2d ed. 1845), and wrote Collectanea, a series of selections from Turkish authors on the history of Poland (1824-25), and Supplément à l'histoire des Huns, des Turcs et des Mongols (1824).

SENLAC, BATTLE OF. See HASTINGS.

SENLIS, säN'lês'. The capital of an arrondissement in the Department of Oise, France, 33 miles north by east of Paris, on the Nonette River (Map: France, J 2). Its walls, erected in the Gallo-Roman period, are still in good condition, and there are also in the vicinity the ruins of an old Roman amphitheatre. The Gothic Cathedral of Notre Dame dates from the twelfth century. The twelfth-century Church of Saint Frambourg, the sixteenth-century Church of Saint Pierre, and the College of Saint Vincent, with its twelfth-century abbey church, the town hall, and the archæological museum are also noteworthy. A treaty was concluded here in 1493 between Maximilian and Charles VIII. of France, by which the former recovered Artois and Franche-Comté. Population, in 1901, 7115.

SENN, NICHOLAS (1844-). An American surgeon, professor of the practice of surgery and of clinical surgery in Rush Medical College, Chicago, Ill. He was born in Buchs, Switzerland, and came to the United States in 1853, settling in Ashford, Wis. After a high school education and some experience in teaching he began to study medicine, and graduated from the Chicago Medical College in 1868. He also graduated in medicine at Munich in 1878. He served as house physician in the Cook County (Ill.) Hospital, in 1868-69; practiced medicine in Fond-du-Lac, Wis., in 186974; in Milwaukee, Wis., in 1874-93; and was professor of the principles and practice of surgery at Chicago College of Physicians and Surgeons in 1884-87, and since 1888 he has been professor of the same branch of surgery in Rush Medical College, and since 1893 has practiced in Chicago. He served as surgeon-general of Wisconsin, and as surgeon-general of the National Guard of Illinois, as attending surgeon to the Presbyterian and Saint Joseph's Hospitals in Chicago. At the outbreak of the Spanish-American War Dr. Senn was appointed chief surgeon of the Sixth Army Corps with the rank of lieutenantcolonel of volunteers, and chief of the operating staff in the field. He served till September, 1898. Dr. Senn is a member of many medical associations in the United States as well as in foreign countries. Among his contributions to literature are: Varicocele (1878); Experimental Surgery (1889); Intestinal Surgery (1889); Surgical Bacteriology (1889); Principles of Surgery (3d ed. 1901); Syllabus of Surgery (1892); The Pathology and Treatment of Tumors (1895); Medico-Surgical Aspects of the Spanish-American War (1900); Practical Surgery for the General Practitioner (1901).

SENNA (OF. senne, sene, Fr. séné, from Ar. sana, senna, from sanaya, to make easy to open). The leaflets of Cassia acutifolia from Nubia and Upper Egypt, and of Cassia angustifolia from Southern Arabia; a brisk cathartic. Cassia acutifolia is a half-shrubby plant, about two feet high, with racemes of yellow flowers, lanceolate acute leaves, and flat elliptical pods, somewhat swollen by the seeds. It grows in the deserts near Assuan, and the leaves are collected by the Arabs and carried by merchants to Cairo for sale. The active principle of senna is a glucoside, cathartic acid. It acts effectively in about four hours, causing watery movements which contain some bile. It increases both the intestinal secretions and peristalsis, and may cause some griping. Excreted with the milk and other secretions

it purges the nursing child. Its best known preparation is compound licorice powder. See CASSIA; and Plate of CARNATIONS, ETC.

SENNACHERIB, sẽn-năk'e-rib (Bab. Sinahe-erba, Sin has increased the brothers). King of Assyria, B.C. 705-681. He succeeded his father, Sargon, and at the beginning of his reign had to deal with a revolt of the Babylonians, headed by Merodach-Baladan. The latter at tempted to involve Hezekiah, King of Judah, in the revolt (II. Kings xx. 12-19). After defeating the Babylonians Sennacherib first proceeded against the Kassi and Ellipi, and then turned his attention to the west. He captured Sidon and the cities dependent upon it, Ashkelon, Ekron, and neighboring cities, and defeated the Egyptians, who undertook to check his progress. The cities of Judah fell into his hands, one after the other, and Hezekiah was shut up in Jerusalem,

but refused to surrender at the demand of the representative of the Assyrian King. At this juncture Sennacherib was obliged to return to Assyria, probably because of the conditions in Babylonia; but Hezekiah seems to have submitted to his general, as he forwarded to Nineveh a heavy tribute. There is some reason to think that there may have been a campaign against Syria and Egypt (II. Kings xix. 9-37) toward the end of Sennacherib's reign when a serious disaster befell the Assyrian army. Later Sennacherib undertook an expedition against Cilicia and Cappadocia. The trouble in Babylonia continued and Sennacherib finally destroyed the city entirely and exiled the inhabitants. In B.C. 681 he was assassinated by two of his sons and was succeeded by another son, Esar-haddon. Consult Tiele, Babylonisch-assyrische Geschichte (Gotha, 1885); Rogers, History of Babylonia and Assyria (New York, 1900); the "Annals of Sennacherib," and the "Babylonian Chronicle," in Keilinschriftliche Bibliothek, vol. ii. (Berlin, 1890); Records of the Past, new series, vol. vi. (London, 1892).

SENNAR, sen-när. A province of Egyptian Sudan (q.v.), situated between the White and Blue Nile, and extending from Khartum south to Fasokl, and known in a wider sense as Dar Sennar, The Province of Kordofan is on the west. The area

of Sennar is unknown. It is essentially a plain with isolated mountains dotting its surface. In

the southeast it becomes rougher, forming the

approach to the Abyssinian highlands. The soil is alluvial and carries gold. Sennar is in the moist zone. The Khartum section of the country has little in the way of vegetation but grasses. In the South are forests. Among the usual trees found are the acacia and the tamarind. Lions, elephants, hippopotamuses, etc., abound. The bog ores yield a good grade of iron. No figures are given for the population, of which the negro race Funj (q.v.) forms a noteworthy part. This race came hither about the year 1500 from Central Africa, and founded the Sennar kingdom, which ceased to exist in 1821. The old capital, Sennar, on the Blue Nile, has about 10.000 inhabitants. It has suffered in the rise of Khartum. Wod Medina and Mesalamia, both on the Blue Nile, are important towns.

SENS, säNS. An archiepiscopal city and the capital of an arrondissement in the Department of Yonne, France, 70 miles southeast of Paris, on the Yonne River (Map: France, K 3). The most

gen

prominent edifice of the city is the cathedral of Saint Etienne. It dates from the twelfth century, but has undergone frequent restorations. It is of the Romanesque and Gothic styles of architecture, the latter being more erally used. The town hall, also a fine structure, has a museum of precious stones, an art gallery, and a library. Manufacturing is the leading industry, the chief products being fertilizers and farm implements. Population, in 1901, 14,962. Sens, the ancient Agenticum, at the time of Julius Cæsar was one of the largest cities of Gaul and still has interesting Roman remains. It was made the seat of an archbishop in the eighth century. The see was changed to a bishopric in 1791, was suppressed in 1801, and was finally restored as an archbishopric in 1807. The Council of Sens which condemned Abelard and his teachings was held here in 1141.

SENSATION (OF. sensacion, Fr. sensation, from Lat. sensatus, possessing sense, from sensus, sense, feeling, from sentire, to perceive; connected with Ir. sét, Goth. sinps, AS. sip, journey, way, OHG. sinnan, to journey, Ger. sinnen, to perceive, think). A term in psychology connoting two distinct usages, an epistemological and a psychological. The psychological usage may itself be twofold, functional or structural, each usage bringing with it a peculiar set of problems. Logically, sensation is the first step in knowing; chronologically, it is the first manifestation of intellectual function. Obvious as this view appears, it will not bear the testeither of a rigid epistemology or of accurate psychological analysis. Knowledge does not proceed from bare sensations to complex perceptions, in its advance from acquaintance-with to knowledgeabout. If it is knowledge at all, it is judgment (q.v.); and the difference between simple and complex judgments is not the difference between sensation and perception. Neither are the intellectual functions built up, in the time order, from the juxtaposition or amalgamation of sensations into perceptions; where there is intellectual functioning, there is, from the first, the function of perceiving. Sensation has in reality no place, despite tradition and historical systems, save in a structural psychology.

mentary or simple mental process; it neither Psychologically regarded, sensation is an eleknows nor gives knowledge, it is. It is the product

of analysis and abstraction; it never occurs alone, and never has occurred alone. Since, however, there is, according to certain psychologists, a second ultimate structural process, the affection (q.v.), we must define sensation more nearly. This may be done by enumerating its introspective differences from the affection, but is done most simply by aid of a psychophysical reference; a sensation, we may say, is an elementary mental process connected with (or conditioned upon) a bodily process within a special (specially differentiated) bodily organ. While such a definition ical standpoint, as is not as satisfactory, from the purely psycholog a definition which should leave psychophysics out of account, it is a perfectly unobjectionable working formula, and has the special advantage of enabling us to bring our classification of sensations (distinction of senses) into relation with the definition of sensation.

Sensations cannot be classified otherwise than psychophysically. A statement of the introspec

tive differences between a blue and a tone, e. g., must necessarily be cumbrous and analogical; whereas the mention of eye and ear is short and adequate. Psychology therefore follows the timehonored custom of referring sensation-systems, modalities or senses to the organs of sense.

Sensation in physiology is the perception by the mind of change wrought in the body. It is by means of sensation that the mind obtains a knowledge of the existence both of the different parts of the body and of the external world. The brain is the true organ of sensation, but besides this there must be perceptive organs for receiving and conducting tissues (nerves) for conveying impressions to the sensorium. Sensations are usually classed as common and special. Under the former head are included all sensations that cannot be localized in any particular part of the body, such as fatigue, discomfort, faintness, satiety, hunger, and thirst. In this class are also included irritations of the mucous membranes, of the respiratory tract that excite cough; the desire to defecate or urinate, and, in females, the sensations that precede parturition; and itching, tingling, burning, and aching. The muscular sense, by which muscular efforts are perceived and regulated, must also be considered as a common sensation. Special sensations are five in number: touch, taste, smell, hearing, and sight. An important distinction between common and special sensations is that by the former certain changes in various portions of the body are perceived, while from the latter knowledge of the external world is gained in addition. is to be remembered that the seat of sensation lies in the brain and not in the special organs, although it is commonly said that we hear with the ear, see with the eye, etc., whereas in reality these organs merely receive impressions.

It

Objective sensations are those excited by some object in the outside world; subjective sensations originate within the brain itself. Through habit the mind is accustomed to connect all sensations with external causes, and this difficulty of separating objective and subjective sensations often gives rise to illusions. These may be aural, optical, or tactile, and are strikingly exemplified in

the various forms of delirium.

Certain disorders of sensation affect the nerves both of common and special sensation. These may be roughly classified as hyperesthesia, anesthesia, and paræsthesia. Hyperæsthesia is an increased sensibility to painful impressions. It is seen in its most severe form in gunshot wounds of the nerves, and is a constant accompaniment of neuritis. Anæsthesia is a loss of sensibility complete or partial, and is produced by contact with various drugs (see ANESTHETICS), exposure to cold, and certain disorders of the nervous system. Paræsthesia is a manifes tation of disturbed sensation characterized by a number of subjective sensations such as numbness, prickling, tingling, and burning. It may affect any part of the body surface, and occurs in a wide variety of nervous diseases. See NER

VOUS SYSTEM AND BRAIN.

Consult: James, Principles of Psychology (New York, 1890); Wundt, Physiologische Psychologie (Leipzig, 1893); Ladd. Psychology, Descriptive and Explanatory (New York, 1894); Kuelpe, Outlines of Psychology, trans. (London, 1895); Titchener, Outline of Psychology (New

York, 1899); id., Experimental Psychology (ib., 1901).

SENSATIONALISM (sometimes called SENSUALISM). A term used to designate the theory that the total content of consciousness is of sense origin; that all the higher activities of mind, such as judgment and reasoning, are the results left by the impressions originally made upon the tabula rasa of the mind by external objects. These impressions, at first unconnected, are supposed to have entered into mutual relation by virtue of the laws of association (see AssoCIATION OF IDEAS). Among sensationalists are to be mentioned the Sophists (q.v.) of antiquity, and Hume (q.v.) and Condillac (q.v.) and their followers in modern times. Locke is a sensationalist with large infusion of rationalism (q.v.) in his doctrines. The classic expression of the principle of sensationalism is given in the Latin sentence, Nihil est in intellectu, quod non fuerit in sensu. See KNOWLEDGE, THEORY OF.

SENSE AND SENSIBILITY. A novel by Marianne Dashwood, illustrate these two qualiJane Austen (1811). Two sisters, Elinor and ties, the course of the story showing the effects of suffering on the impulsive, uncontrolled nature of one and on the sedate, unselfish disposition of the other. The too evident purpose hampers the story, which contains some excellent charthe commonplace Middletons, and vulgar but acterizations, as Mrs. Dashwood, her selfish son, kind Mrs. Jennings.

SENSE ORGANS. See NERVOUS SYSTEM, EVOLUTION OF THE.

SENSES, SENSIBILITY. See SENSATION. SENSITIVE BRIER. See SENSITIVE PLANT. SENSITIVE PLANT. A common name of certain species of Mimosa, so called on account of the irritability (q.v.) of their leaves. Those species which are most irritable are herbaceous or half-shrubby plants with beautifully divided pinnate leaves. The leaflets close upward in pairs when touched, and on repeated or rough touching the leaflets of the neighboring pinnæ also close together, become depressed, and lastly the whole leaf hangs as if withered. If the stem is shaken, all the leaves exhibit the same phenomena. After a short time the leafstalk rises, and the leaflets expand again. On account of this curious and interesting property, some of the sensitive plants are frequently cultivated in hothouses. The same faculty is possessed by the sensitive brier (Schrankia), two or three species of which are indigenous to the Southern United States, and also by the stamens and styles of many plants, especially of certain cacti. By extension, all plants which respond to contact stimuli are said to be sensitive, and in the widest sense all plants may be included. Some plants exceed in sensitiveness the sense organs of the human body.

SENSITIVITY (from sensitive, from OF., Fr. sensitif, from Lat. sentire, to perceive). A term used in psychophysics, meaning 'the bare capacity of receiving and communicating sensations.' It is subdivided into modal sensitivity (having reference to a whole sense department) and sensibility (having reference to individual sensations). Modal sensitivity is measured by the number of sensations possible to a given sense, e.g. the ear's modal sensitivity is given by 11,000, the number of distinguishable tone quali

ties. (See AUDITION.) Since sensations may be investigated with regard to their different aspects or attributes (quality, intensity, extent, and duration), we can further speak of a qualitative, intensive, extensive, and temporal sensibility. (See LIMEN.) Consult: Fechner, Elemente der Psychophysik (Leipzig, 1880); Kuelpe, Outlines of Psychology, translated (London, 1895).

or

SENSORIUM (Lat., sense or organ of sensation). The collective organ of sensation perception. The cortex or gray matter of the brain, with the important ganglia at its base, is usually meant by this term in modern psychology. It was long attempted to determine some one point in the brain where the soul is especially located or centralized, and to this point the name of sensorium was applied in the older psychological speculations. The fancy of Descartes made it a small body near the base of the brain, called the pineal gland. The recent views of the nervous system repudiate the idea of a central point of this nature; in consciousness the brain generally is active, although under different impressions and ideas the currents may be presumed to follow different nerve tracks. Consequently no meaning is now attached to a sensorium in psychology, as distinct from the cerebrum at large. See NERVOUS SYSTEM AND BRAIN.

SENTENCE (Lat. sententia, opinion, from sentire, to perceive). In grammar, an expression of articulate speech, either oral or written, which is, in the judgment both of the speaker and hearer, an organic whole. The sentence is divided into two parts, the subject and the predicate. The subject is that of which something is predicated; the predicate is that which is stated or asked concerning the subject. It is, however, possible to have a sentence in which the predicate, or, more rarely, the subject is suppressed, if it may be readily supplied by the hearer, or is present in the mind of the speaker. This usage is characteristic of the interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory types, and some scholars deny that such sentences which contain no expressed subject or predicate are real sentences. On this view the most primitive form of sentence is probably the assertive or predicative, as He comes. From this type was developed the dubitative or potential sentence, Perhaps he comes, and the interrogative type, Does he come? Here may be seen the subjectless sentence in such an expression as Come? with the answer, Not he, or (Is) he (coming) with the answer, No, she. The question of the origin of the imperative type of sentence, as Stop! John! is a difficult one. It seems on the whole most probable that this was the most primitive of all forms of the sentence, for it must be borne in mind that the imperative mood and the vocative case were originally mere interjections, the most primitive of all forms of speech. (See INTERJECTIONS; LANGUAGE.) Evi dence seems to show that there is in the so-called single-membered sentence, even in its earliest form and occurrence, an ellipsis of one of the two members. The cry of an animal is in a sense a predicate to which the subject is supplied by the hearer.

The relation of the subject matter of a sentence to its verbal form is studied most explicitly in logic, where propositions are classified according to the nature or degree of their predications.

The proposition, in best usage, is the verbal expression of the judgment which is a mental act. The main differentiations of propositions in traditional logic are into affirmative and negative— He comes, He does not come;-and into categorical, hypothetical, and disjunctive—He comes, If he comes we shall see him, He may or he may not come. The logical elements of a predication, the subject, copula, and predicate, correspond very closely to the grammatical elements of the sentence, and seem to furnish a basis in the nature of reasoning for the analysis of grammatical however, theories of judgment consider all propforms. In certain modern logical developments, ositions as predicates whose subject is reality or the orderly system of human knowledge. According to this view, there is a tacit predication in every complete expression, in the interjection as well as in the categorical affirmation. Propositions, or rather judgments, are then graded upon a psychological scale of belief and certainty-the interjection represents the inevitable and unquestioned; the categorical affirmative (or negative) the hypothetical proposition represents a genrepresents a conclusion of certainty after doubt; thetical element be granted or occur; and the diseralized case, which is certain, provided the hypojunction is a predication of uncertainty within the limits covered by the subject matter of the proposition. All grammatical forms of the sentence are thus more or less elaborate analyses of complex mental states in which each verbal unit represents an abstract of some quality, or predicate of the subject matter of thought. simplest states are reflected in the single-membered sentence, while the more advanced and involved states necessitate various types of verbal complication.

The

Sentences are furthermore classed as simple, compound, and complex. The simple sentence consists of a single subject and a single predicate, as, He comes. The compound sentence is composed of two or more subjects and predicates, either of which sets forms in itself a simple sentence, and whose parts are normally connected by a conjunction (q.v.), as He comes here and he goes home. The complex sentence is either a simple or compound independent sentence, part of which is modified by a dependent sentence, normally introduced by a pronoun (q.v.), but not forming by itself a simple independent sentence, as He who wishes comes, and he who is eager that more may come goes that he may call them. The compound or paratactic type of sentence is almost certainly more primitive than the Consult: Delcomplex or hypotactic sentence. brück, Vergleichende Syntax der indogermanischen Sprachen, vol iii. (Strassburg, 1900); id., Grundfragen der Sprachforschung (ib., 1901); Wundt, Völkerpsychologie, i., "Die Sprache," (Leipzig, 1900); id., Sprachgeschichte und Sprachpsychologie (ib., 1901; Gabelentz, Sprachwis senschaft (2d ed., ib., 1901); Paul, Prinzipien der Sprachgeschichte (3d ed., Halle, 1898); Jacobi, Compositum und Nebensatz (Bonn. 1897); Hermann, Gab es im Indogermanischen Nebensätze? (Gütersloh, 1894); Miklosich, Subjektlose Sätze (Vienna, 1883); Sigwart, Impersonalien (Freiburg, 1888); Kimball, Structure of the English Sentence (New York, 1900). For the legal aspect, consult Bosanquet, Logic (London, 1888).