applies specifically to the extinct rytina or Arctic sea-cow (Rhytina Stelleri), which once frequented Bering Straits, but was exterminated about 1767 by seal-hunters and sailors who found its beef-like flesh excellent eating. When discovered by Bering's expedition in 1741, it lived only on Bering and Copper Islands. G. W. Steller, the naturalist of the expedition, made sketches and wrote an account of the animal, which he describes as 24 to 30 feet long, with a girth of 19 or 20 feet and weighing about 8000 pounds. The head was small, and the jaws had, instead of teeth, horny pads similar to those in the mouth of the dugong. The skin was very thick, dark-colored, and rough. The rytina was gregarious, and dwelt in herds about the mouths of streams, where it lived on seaweeds. It was unable to dive, and hence was restricted to shallow water, where its feeding was often prevented by ice, so that in winter many starved. It was stupid, sluggish, and comparatively helpless. Stejneger's writings in the Proceedings of the United States National Museum, vol. vii. (1884), and in The American Naturalist, vol. xxi. (1887), contain most of what is known of this extinct race. Consult also Nordenskjöld, Voyage of the Vega (New York, 1881).

SEA-CUCUMBER. A holothurian (q.v.). The name, which refers to the shape, is appropriate only for certain of the pedate species, most of the footless forms being more or less elongated and worm-like. Compare TREPANG.

SEA-DEVIL. A devil-fish; especially the great ray (Manta birostris).

SEA-EAGLE. See EAGLE.

SEA-ELEPHANT. See ELEPHANT-SEAL;

and Colored Plate of SEALS.

SEA-FAN. An alcyonarian (q.v.) coral, in which the form of the colony is not unlike that of a fan, being very greatly flattened, so that it becomes wide and high but very thin. Moreover, it is not solid, but consists of an open network, with the meshes of comparatively small size. The forms to which the name is most popularly given are species of Gorgonia, and especially the common West Indian species, Gorgonia flabellum. Fine specimens are sometimes four feet high and nearly as far across. The color is very variable, but is usually yellow or dull reddish purple. Seafans are sparingly represented in a fossil state; only a few forms are known from Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks. See GORGONIACEA.

SEAHAM (seam) HARBOR. A seaport in the County of Durham, England, 5 miles south of Sunderland (Map: England, E 2). It has a finely equipped harbor, a seaman's infirmary, and the Londonderry Literary Institute. Bottle works, blast furnaces, an iron foundry, and chemical works are its principal industrial establishments. The chief article of export is coal. Seaham was founded in 1828 by the Marquis of Londonderry. Population, in 1901, 10,200. SEA-HOLLY. See ERYNGO.

SEA-HORSE. One of the small strange syngnathous fishes of the pipefish family, which constitute the genus Hippocampus and its near allies, and take their name from the rude resemblance of the head to that of a horse. The body is compressed, with an elongated tail, and the integument is a series of large, rectangular

VOL. XVII.-47.

bony plates, with a series of spines and projections along the lines of juncture. These spines, together with the divided, streamer-like fins of some species, give them a strong resemblance to the seaweeds among which they live. There are about 20 species in various warm and temperate seas. All keep near shore, often developing in brackish water; and as their powers of swimming are feeble, they have become able, by the development of prehensility in the tail, to cling firmly to weeds and other supports and so resist being swept away. Like the pipefishes (q.v.), the males take charge of the eggs, which are placed in an abdominal pouch, and remain there until they hatch; and for some time afterwards the fry will, when alarmed, return to the shelter of the pouch. Consult Gunther, Introduction to the Study of Fishes (London, 1880).

A SEA-HORSE.

SEA ISLANDS. A group of low sandy or marshy islands on the coast of South Carolina between Charleston and Savannah. They are separated from the mainland. by a series of lagoons, sounds, and narrow, tortuous channels. Their soil is especially well adapted for rice and cotton, the latter, for which the islands are celebrated, being a fine, long-stapled variety.

Its blanched

SEA-KALE, or CRAMBE (Crambe maritima). A perennial plant of the natural order Cruciferæ native to European seacoasts. sprouts are eaten like asparagus. Sea-kale is especially popular in England, but is grown to a limited extent elsewhere. Sea-kale is generally propagated by offsets or cuttings of the roots, and sometimes by seed. A plantation remains productive for several years.

SEAL (OF. seel, scel, Fr. sceau, from Lat. sigillum, seal, mark, diminutive of signum, sign, must consist of a piece of wax, lead, or other mark, token). By ancient common law a seal tenacious metal or substance, stamped with words or a device, according to the fancy of the person adopting it. At present two of the most common devices are: a circular bit of paper stamped in some manner and attached to the instrument by mucilage; the impress of a design or words in the paper of the instrument itself by means of a die.

Introduced at a time when practically only the clergy could write, and used for a long time instead of signatures on private writings, etc., as well as legal instruments, seals did not originally invest an instrument with any distinctive solemnity, but after the art of writing became a common accomplishment and most private writings, not of a legal nature, were signed instead of sealed, the courts began to attach a peculiar and

arbitrary efficacy to a sealed legal instrument as distinguished from one bearing merely a signature. After feoffment as a means of transfer of land was abolished, all conveyances were required to be under seal. The most important effect ascribed to the use of a seal was that it conclusively imported consideration for a promise or obligation contained in a sealed instrument. However, to-day in the United States the matters of the necessity for a seal on various instruments and the kind of a seal required when necessary are almost wholly regulated by statutes. In New York and Connecticut the word 'seal' or the Latin abbreviation 'L.S.,' written on the instrument, are recognized as sufficient substitutes for seals; and in Arkansas, California, Florida, Illinois, Indiana, Maryland, Michigan, Missouri, New Mexico, North Carolina, Oregon, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Virginia, and West Virginia, a scroll executed with a pen will be sufficient. In New Jersey, Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Wyoming any device or flourish with the pen will be recognized as a seal if intended as such.

In the following States the common-law distinction between sealed and unsealed instruments

has been abolished by statutes: Arkansas, California, North Dakota, South Dakota, Mississippi, Indiana, Kentucky, and Tennessee.

It is not necessary for individuals to use seals in Arizona, Colorado, Idaho, Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, Nevada, Ohio, Utah, and Washington. Most States, however, require a seal on instruments executed by corporations. Public officers are usually required to have official seals and all important public documents must be impressed with the proper seal.

The courts will usually recognize without proof the seals of nations and of the various States of the United States, the seals of superior courts and of public officers within their own State, including notarial seals. See CONTRACT; CONSIDERATION; NOTARY PUBLIC, and consult "History and Use of Seals in England," in vol. xviii. of Archeologia (London); Blackstone, Commentaries; Parsons, On Contracts.

rus.

SEAL (AS. seol, siol, OHG. selah, selach, seal). A carnivorous aquatic mammal of the suborder Pinnipedia, without tusk-like canines in the upper jaw; any pinniped except the walSeals are specially modified for their aquatic life, particularly in the structure of the limbs. The upper arm and forearm of the front limb, and the two corresponding parts of the hind limb, are very short and more or less imbedded in the tissues of the body, while the hands and feet, especially the latter, are greatly enlarged and fully webbed. Five well-developed digits are present in all cases, but in the hind limbs the outer and inner digits are stouter and often longer than the other three. There are no clavicles in the shoulder girdle, and the limbs are poorly adapted for use on land. The tail is al ways very short, but the hind limbs often serve the purpose of a rudder. The body is sleek and graceful, tapering posteriorly as in cetaceans (q.v.), but the head is always distinct and well formed. The whole surface of the animal develops a hairy covering, even the palms of the hands and soles of the feet being thus protected in the true seals. There are always fewer than twelve incisor teeth, and usually four premolars and only

one molar are present on each side of the head, in each jaw. The brain is large and much convoluted, and seals exhibit much intelligence. The eyes are large and exposed, with flat corneas, and external ears, though small, are often present.

Although so specially adapted to their aquatic life, seals come to shore or upon ice-floes to mate and to bring forth their young. One or two young are produced at a time, not oftener than once a year. Seals are polygamous and the males fight savagely for the possession of the females. As the pairing occurs soon after the birth of the young, the latter, known as 'pups,' are often neglected and many die. During the breeding season the males do not eat, and it is said they sometimes endure three months of abstinence. The food consists of various marine animals, chiefly fish, squids, and crustaceans; possibly vegetable food is also used at times. It is a curious fact that seals often swallow pebbles and even large stones, which are frequently found in their stomachs, but the purpose is not clearly understood. They are regurgitated, as are also the indigestible parts of the food, such as fish-bones and squids' beaks. Seals are large eaters, the remains of more than 200 squids time, although digestion is very rapid. The food having been found in a single fur-seal at one is masticated little or not at all, fishes being usually bolted head first. In the capture of their food, as in all their movements in the however, their movements are awkward and prowater, seals are quick and graceful. On land, gression is chiefly effected by a succession of jerks caused by the upward bending and sudden straightening of the spine, which is remarkably flexible, the limbs being little used by the true seals; the eared seals move mainly by the aid of the limbs. Food is not normally taken on land, and in pursuit of it seals are capable of remaining under water for long periods of time, respiration being very slow.

As regards the intelligence of seals there seems to be considerable difference of opinion, according to the opportunities and point of view of the observer. In captivity some species of seal have shown considerable readiness to learn tricks of more or less difficulty, and trained seals have often been exhibited. On the other hand, observations made on the fur-seal in its native haunts seem to show that while the instincts are strong, there is little real intelligence, and ordinarily stupidity is a marked characteristic. The homing instinct is very strong in most seals, and they will return year after year to their breeding grounds, even though they are sure to meet with slaughter. Most species are also very gregarious, and in their herds they constantly tend to imitate each other, so that they follow their leaders in a perfectly unreasoning way.

Seals are widely distributed in all parts of the oceanic world, but especially in the colder regions. A few species occur in the tropics and temperate regions, but it is in the Arctic and Antarctic parts of the ocean that seals really abound. There they swarm on rocky coasts and on ice-floes during the breeding season, and in the water during the rest of the year. Although seals are normally marine, two species inhabit the Caspian Sea and Lake Baikal.

The classification of the seals and the limits of the species are still much debated subjects and

are very perplexing. Two principal groups are recognized-true seals (Phocida) and otaries (Otariidae), the former without external ears, which the latter possess; there are also differences in dentition. The Phocidæ are all hair'seals; that is, they have no thick coating of fur under the outer hairy oat. Some of the otaries are also hair-seals, but all fur-seals are otaries, There are three subfamilies of Phocida-Phocinæ, Monachinæ, and Cystophorinæ, the first having ten incisors, the second eight, and the third only six. The Phocinæ include many of the best-known species, such as the common seal (Phoca vitulina), the harp-seal (Phoca Grænlandica), the floe-rat or ringed seal (Phoca hispida), and the freshwater seals (Phoca Caspica and Sibirica), already referred to.

The common 'harbor' seal is circumpolar in its distribution, and extends in range downward into both the North Atlantic and Pacific oceans. It is locally common along the eastern coast of America, and on the wilder and less frequented parts of the British coast. The pelage is yellowish, variously spotted and marked, with brown above, while underneath it is generally yellowishwhite; but there is considerable variability in the coloration. In size the common seal is one of the smaller species, the entire length being from three to five feet. Although gregarious, this species is not found in large rookeries,' but small herds are occasionally seen. The skin, which is used for leather and other purposes, and the oil, which is colorless, nearly odorless, and in many ways superior to whale oil, are of sufficient commercial importance to subject these animals to continual slaughter, and their numbers are probably steadily diminishing. The females show some attachment to their young, though their devotion has probably been exaggerated. In captivity the common seal is docile and is said to become attached to its keeper. It is endowed with much curiosity, and there may be some basis for the belief that it is strongly attracted by musical sounds. The sense of smell is very acute and the vocal power ranges from a plaintive bleat to a harsh bark or grunt. The popular name 'sea-calf,' and the specific name vitulina, have reference to a supposed resemblance between its voice and that of a calf.

The harp-seal is a much larger and more northern species, reaching a length of eight or nine feet and rarely coming south of Newfoundland. It is extremely gregarious and almost wholly pelagic, resorting to the ice-floes only to breed. It is much sought after by sealing vessels, several hundred thousand being annually slaughtered on the breeding grounds. The floerat is one of the smallest seals, although about as long as the common species. It is an Arctic form, and is of great importance to the Eskimos as a source of food and clothing. This is the species which forms a domed cavity in the ice, called by the Eskimos an 'igloo,' after the name of their own winter houses; and it also keeps open breathing holes through the ice. The seals of the Caspian Sea and Lake Baikal are near relatives to the floe-rat, which they resemble in size, though differing in some other details. Their presence in Lake Baikal, a fresh-water lake, is not so remarkable when one considers that the seal often ascends rivers for long distances and has been taken in Lake Champlain.

The Monachinæ are a small group of half a

dozen species, all Antarctic, except the two species of monk-seal which are tropical. The European monk-seal (Monachus albiventris) occurs in the Mediterranean Sea and adjacent parts of the Atlantic Ocean, while a closely allied species, the West Indian seal (Monachus tropicalis), of which little seems to be known, is confined to the Gulf of Mexico, where it is nearly extirpated. (See EXTINCT ANIMALS.) These seals have the first and fifth toes of the hind feet greatly longer than the others, and the nails of both fore and hind feet are very small and rudimentary. The other seals of this subfamily are rare and little known except the sea-leopard (q.v.) of the south temperate and Antarctic seas.

The Cystophorinæ are a small group containing only two or three species, but both of the genera are of considerable interest. The hooded seal (q.v.) is a large Polar species, remarkable for the hood-like distensible sac covering the head of the male and connected with the nostrils. The second genus, Macrorhinus, includes the largest of all seals, the elephant-seals (q.v.), or elephants so called in reference to the proboscis of the male as well as the great size.

sea

Turning to the otaries, or 'eared seals,' it is convenient to recognize two principal groups, the 'sea-lions' or hair-otaries, and the 'sea-bears' or fur-otaries. The former group includes the larg est species, some of them attaining a length of fourteen feet. The southern sea-lion (Otaria jubata) occurs commonly on the west coast of South America, while the northern sea-lion (Eumetopias Stelleri) is found throughout the North Pacific from California to Japan. The common sea-lion of California is, however, a much smaller species, called the black sea-lion (Zalophus Californianus), and is often seen in menageries and zoological gardens. It is famous as the attraction at the Seal Rocks, close by the Cliff House, near San Francisco. The sea-lions are all very timid animals, easily terrified, and may be driven in herds, even far inland, by means of flags or umbrellas. See Colored Plate of SEALS.

THE FUR-SEALS. The last group of seals to be considered are the fur-seals, by far the most important commercially of all marine mammals. The fur-seals of the Southern Hemisphere are now usually placed in a separate genus, Arctocephalus, which ranges as far north in the Pacific as Guadaloupe Island (29° N.), although mainly confined to the south-temperate and antarctic zones. The skin is of considerable value, and these seals have therefore been eagerly sought wherever they resorted for breeding. They have therefore been practically, if not totally, exterminated, except in some small rookeries in New Zealand and on the west coast of Cape Colony, which are under rigid governmental control, and yield about 7000 skins per annum; and especially on Lobos Island, off the mouth of the Rio Plata, which is leased by the Government of Uruguay to a private company, which so controls the slaughter that about 13,000 skins are furnished annually.

The northern fur-seals (genus Callorhinus) are confined to the North Pacific Ocean. At the present day they breed mainly on the Pribilof, Commander, Robben, Bering, and Kurile islands, the first being the most famous resort. The northern fur-seal varies considerably in size, color, and proportions, and specialists recog