-).

thalmology (1891-92) in the university, and professor in the Philadelphia Polyclinic and in Jefferson Medical College (1891-92). He wrote Diseases of the Eye (1892), and contributed to the American System of Obstetrics (1889), to the Cyclopædia of Diseases of Children (1890), and to the System of Therapeutics (1892).

SCHWEINFURTH, shvin'foort, GEORG (1836 A German explorer, born at Riga. He studied natural history, particularly botany, at the universities of Heidelberg, Munich, and Berlin, and in 1864 went to Egypt, where he spent two years. In 1869 he set out from Khartum to explore the countries along the White Nile. In 1872, on a commission from the SCHWEINITZ, LOUIS DAVID VON (1780Khedive, he founded the Institut Egyptien 1834). An American botanist, born at Bethleat Cairo, and in 1874 he visited the principal hem, Pa. He studied in Germany, entered the oases in the Libyan desert. During the fol- ministry of the Moravian Church, and held ecclelowing years he several times visited the oases siastical office at Salem, N. C., and Bethlehem. of Arabia, of whose flora he made a thor- By his botanical researches he added to the list ough study, and explored the coast of Barca of American flora more than 1400 species, of and the valley of the Nile. In 1888 he returned which more than 1200 were fungi. He beto Europe and took up his residence in Berlin. queathed to the Academy of Natural Sciences of In 1901-02 he visited Egypt again, returning with Philadelphia his herbarium, at the time of his rich archæological and botanical collections. death the largest private collection in the United Among his publications are The Heart of Africa States. His works include a Conspectus Fun(1874) and Artes Africana (1875). In collabgorum Lusatia (1805), Specimen Flora America oration with Ratzel he also published Emin Septentrionalis Cryptogamiea (1821), and a Pascha, Reisebriefe und Berichte (1888). Synopsis Fungorum in America Boreali Media SCHWEINFURTHERS. See CHURCH TRI- Degentium (1832). See the Memoir, published at Philadelphia in 1835.

UMPHANT, THE.

SCHWEINITZ, shvi'nits, EDMUND ALEXANDER DE (1825-87). An American bishop of the Moravian Church. He was born at Bethlehem, Pa., and studied theology at the Moravian Seminary there and at Berlin. He entered the ministry in 1850, and in the course of his pastoral life was stationed at Canal Dover, O.; Lebanon, Pa.; Philadelphia, Lititz, and Bethlehem, in Pennsylvania. In 1870 he was consecrated bishop of the Moravian Church. The latter years of his life were spent at Bethlehem, where he held the presidency of the seminary, and also the presidency of the governing board of the American Province of the Unitas Fratrum. He founded The Moravian, the weekly journal of his Church, in 1856, and for ten years was its editor. He was the author of The Moravian Manual (1859); The Moravian Episcopate (1865); The Life and Times of David Zeisberger (1870); Some of the Fathers of the Moravian Church (1881); and The History of the Church Known as the Unitas Fratrum; or, The Unity of the Brethren, founded by the followers of John Huss (1885). Consult his Memoir (Bethlehem, 1888).

SCHWEINITZ, EMIL ALEXANDER DE (1866 -1904). An American bacteriologist, born at Salem, N. C. He graduated at the University of North Carolina in 1882 and at Göttingen in 1886, became connected with the chemical division of the Agricultural Department, Washington, D. C., and in 1890 was appointed director of the biochemic laboratory of the Bureau of Animal Industry of that department. He was also appointed to the chair of chemistry and toxicology in the Columbian University. He made an especial study of hygiene and of bacterial products, and published The Poisons Produced by the Hog Cholera Germ (1890), The Production of Immunity to Swine Plague by Use of the Products of the Germ (1891). A Hygienic study of Oleomargarine (1896), The War with the Microbes (1897), and other scientific treatises.

SCHWEINITZ, GEORGE EDMUND DE (1858 -). An American ophthalmologist. son of the Moravian bishop, born in Philadelphia, and educated at Bethlehem Moravian College and in the University of Pennsylvania (class of 1881). He was prosector (1883-88) and lecturer on oph

SCHWEINITZ, RUDOLF (1839-96). A German sculptor, born at Charlottenburg. He studied at the Berlin Academy under Schievelbein, and after further training in Paris, Copenhagen, and Rome became his master's assistant. He worked on the exterior decoration of the National Gallery in Berlin, for which he designed the three arts for the three corners of the gables. He made the three colossal groups "Rhine," "Oder," and "Battle," for the King's Bridge in Berlin; eight reliefs on the City Hall, Berlin, and the reliefs on the Weichsel Bridge in Thorn, "Founding of the City of Thorn;" also ten statues in Bläser's monument to Frederick William III. in Cologne. His "Cupid in Danger" (1881) is in the National Gallery, Berlin.

SCHWELM, shvělm. A town of Prussia, 23 miles east of Düsseldorf. There are iron, wire, enamel, and nickel works, with manufactures of wood screws, machinery, locks and keys, linens, and silks. Population, in 1900, 16,890.

SIMON

SCHWENDENER, shvĕn'de-ner, (1829-). A German botanist, born at Buchs, Switzerland, and educated at Geneva and Zurich. He became professor and director of the botanical gardens at Basel in 1867, and professor of physiological botany at Berlin in 1878. He maintained that lichens were composed of algal cells, white cellular tissue, and spongy fungus, and explained the formation and development of plants by laws of mechanics. He wrote Ueber den Bau und das Wachstum des Flechtenthallus (1860), Die Algentypen der Flechtengonidien (1869), Das mechanische Prinzip im anatomischen Bau der Monokotylen (1874), Die mechanische Theorie der Blattstellungen (1878), Ueber das Winden der Pflanzen (1881), Zur Theorie der Blattstellungen (1883), and Gesammelte botanische Mitteilungen (1898).

SCHWENINGER, shva'ning-er, ERNST (1850-). A German physician, born in Freistadt. He studied medicine at Munich (186670), was Buhl's assistant until 1875, when he became docent of pathological anatomy, and in 1879 went into private practice. His appointment to a chair in Berlin, in 1884, was largely due to his successful treatment of Bismarck for obesity. His modified Banting method is de

Pater Schynses letzte Reisen (Cologne, 1892), and Pater August Schynse und seine Missionsreisen in Afrika (Strassburg, 1894).

SCIACCA, shak'kå. A seaport in the Province of Girgenti, Sicily, 45 miles south-southwest of Palermo (Map: Italy, H 10). It has an eleventh-century cathedral, ruins of castles, a technical school, and a library. There are potteries, anchovy fishing, and a trade in grain and oil. Sciacca was an important city in the Middle Ages. Population (commune), in 1881, 22,195; in 1901, 20,090.

SCIÆNIDÆ, si-ĕn'i-dē (Neo-Lat. nom. pl., from Lat. sciana, from Gk. oklava, skiaina, sort of sea-fish, maigre, from aκiá, skia, Skt. chāyā shadow). A large and important family of spiny-rayed fishes, the grunters, with considerable resemblance to the perches, having a compressed body. The scales are ctenoid and arranged in oblique rows. The family includes the weakfish, drums, croakers, etc. There are 30 genera and about 150 species, found in all warm seas, but never in deep water. A few species are restricted to fresh waters. Many grow to a large size. Most of them are valued as food fishes and some are interesting game fishes.

SCIALOIA, she-á-lo'yȧ, ANTONIO (1817-77). An Italian economist and patriot, born at San Giovanni del Teduccio, in Campania. Educated for the law, he published in 1840 I principi dell' economia sociale, a book which at once put the young writer into the notice of European economists. As a consequence he was professor of political economy at the University of Turin. He became actively interested in the movements which resulted in the unification of Italy. He was called into the Treasury by Cavour, entered the Lower House of Parliament, and later became Senator. He held the portfolio of Finance from 1865 to 1867, at the most trying epoch of Italian affairs. Among his economic and legal works may be mentioned, in addition to the Principi already named, Sulla proprietà dei prodotti d'ingegno (1843), Industria e protezione (1843), I bilanci di Napoli e degli stati sardi, and Carestia e governo (published in Turin from 1854 to 1860). SCIATICA (ML., from sciaticus, from Lat. ischiadicus, from Gk. loxiadiós, ischiadikos, subject to pains in the loins, from loxiás, ischias, pain in the loins, from loxlov, ischion, socket of the thigh joint). A neuralgia of the great sciatic nerve. (See NERVOUS SYSTEM AND BRAIN.) It occurs in persons of a gouty or rheumatic tendency and is brought on by exposure, muscular strain from hard labor, pressure from hard seats, and constipation. As a symptomatic affection it may be caused by the pressure of pelvic tumors, injury to the nerves, inflammations, and spinal disease. It also occurs occasionally in phthisis and diabetes. Sciatica is characterized by irregular pains about the hip, especially between the great trochanter of the thigh bone and the bony process on which the body rests when sitting (tuberosity of the ischium), spreading into the neighboring parts and running down the back of the thigh into the leg and foot. The pain is almost continuous, with paroxysms of great severity in which the pain is sharp, burning, and stabbing in character. The disease is very obstinate and tends to become chronic. In treatment a most important indication is rest, which is sometimes made more com

plete by the application of a splint to the limb. The medicinal treatment depends upon the underlying constitutional condition, with morphine, antipyrine, and like drugs to relieve pain. When the disease becomes chronic the galvanic electric current is indicated. Wet cupping is often useful.

SCICLI, she'klė. A town in the Province of Syracuse, Sicily, 38 miles southwest of Syracuse (Map: Italy, J 11). Population (commune), in 1901, 16,277.

a

SCID’MORE, ELIZA RUHAMAH (1856–). An American traveler and author. She was born at Madison, Wis., received an academic education, became widely known as a traveler and as writer of books of travel, and was made corresponding secretary of the National Geographic Society. Her published works include: Alaska, the Southern Coast and the Sitkan Archipelago (1885); Jinrikisha Days in Japan (1890); Westward to the Far East (1890); Java, the Garden of the East (1897); and China, the Long-Lived Empire (1900).

SCIENCE, SOCIAL. See SOCIOLOGY.

SCIENCES (Lat. scientia, knowledge, from scire, to know), CLASSIFICATION OF. From early times attempts have been made to arrange all the sciences in a systematic order which shall clearly show their relations to each other. The result of such an attempt depends, of course, partly upon the material to be classified, and partly upon the principle used in classification, i.e. the fundamentum divisionis (see DIVISION); it is also apt to be influenced by the partiality of the classifier in favor of some discipline which he wishes to place above all others.

In ancient Greece there were relatively few sciences, and the classification of such as existed was a comparatively easy matter. And yet even then there was disagreement among classifiers, due in great measure to differences in philo

sophical conceptions. The Platonists divided the sciences into dialectics, physics, and ethics. Aristical, and the poetical (creative or technical). totle divided them into the theoretical, the prac

ed definitively as the sub-classes of the theoreti Interpreters are not agreed upon what he acceptcal sciences. Some maintain that these subclasses are analytics (logic), metaphysics, and physics. Others say that he regarded logic merely as propedeutic to the sciences, and that the theoretical sciences were divided into mathematics, physics, and the 'first philosophy' (metaphysics). The practical sciences included ethics and politics, although Aristotle seemed at times to regard ethics merely as a branch of politics. The technical sciences were of two kinds, the useful and the imitative.

In modern times Bacon (1605) uses as principle of division the so-called faculties of the mind, some one of which was by him supposed to be predominantly active in each of the several sciences. These faculties were memory, imagination, and reason, and they gave rise respectively to history, poesy, and philosophy. "History is natural, civil, ecclesiastical, and literary; whereof the first three I allow as extant, the fourth I note as deficient." These are again subdivided. Poesy is divided into "poesy narrative, representative, and allusive." "In philosophy, the contemplations of man do either penetrate unto God, or are circumferred to Nature, or are reflected or reverted upon himself. Out of which

HOBBES'S CLASSIFICATION OF THE SCIENCES

first{

Consequences from quantity and motion indeterminate; which being the principles, or first foundation of Philosophy, is called Philosophia Prima.

PHILOSOPHIA
PRIMA.

Consequences from the qualities of bodies Transient, such as sometimes appear, sometimes vanish.

Consequences from the Light of the starres. Out of this, and the motion of the sunne, is made the Science of