to the publishing houses of Diabelli and Has linger. Both absolutely declined it, giving as reasons that the composer was unknown and that the accompaniment was too difficult. Sonnleithner then persuaded three others to share the expense with him, and had the song printed by Diabelli on commission. Other songs of his now were published and sold well, and he would have found himself in fairly comfortable circumstances had he not been absolutely without business instinct.

In December, 1823, he finished the opera Alfonso und Estrella, on which, off and on, he had been engaged for some time. The libretto is by Schober, and it is said that Schubert set Schober's lines to music as rapidly as the librettist wrote them. The opera was not brought out until 1854, when Liszt produced it at Weimar, but unsuccessfully, largely owing to the wretched libretto. One of Schubert's finest works, the Unfinished Symphony, dates from this period. This fragment consists of the first and second movements, which are familiar to concert goers, and nine bars of the scherzo. These are fully scored, but with them the manuscript comes to a complete stop, not even the the most meagre sketch of the remainder having been discovered. This exquisite fragment was presented in its unfinished state by Schubert to the Musikverein at Gratz, in recognition of his election to membership, but was not heard until 1865, when it was performed in Vienna. Some incidental music written for Rosamunde, Princess of Cyprus, pleased greatly; but Schubert's genius seems to have been too lyric for opera, and of his few stage works which have been heard, only the little opera Der häusliche Krieg, which remained unknown until 1861, when it was brought out in Vienna, has had any success. The year 1823 is noteworthy for the composition of his charming song cycle Die schöne Müllerin. During the few remaining years of his brief life he composed several of his finest works, most notable among them his great symphony in C. He presented the score to the Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde, of Vienna, in return for a purse of 100 florins, which they had voted him. They placed the symphony in rehearsal, but abandoned it as too difficult. The score was discovered in 1838 in Ferdinand Schubert's possession by Schumann, and by him sent to Mendelssohn, who produced it at a Gewandhaus concert, Leipzig, March, 1839. On November 4, 1828, Schubert called on the Court organist, Sechter, to arrange for lessons in counterpoint. Soon afterwards he took to the bed from which he never rose. "Die Taubenpost," the last of the Schwanengesang, composed in October, 1828, is generally regarded as his last composition. In the early stages of his final illness (typhoid) he gave some time to correcting the proof-sheets of his song cycle Die Winterreise. He died November 19th, and was buried near Beethoven's grave.

There is no doubt that as an orchestral composer Schubert had but just found himself' in the C symphony, now ranked among the finest compositions of its class. It is not unlikely that, having established so high a standard for himself, he would have followed this symphony with others, but, allowing for the possibility of a decline in his powers, the world may well be satisfied with what he left. No composer, except Bach, has gained so much in fame since his death.

With the pure melodic line he combined in his Lieder wonderful powers of vocal expression, as well as vividness of description in the accompaniments. Notable examples are The Erlking, Die junge Nonne, in which the accompaniment gives the tolling of a bell above a raging storm, and Auf dem Wasser zu singen, in which the water fairly ripples and sparkles around the vocal melody. The known list of his songs is over 600. Perhaps it was because Schubert's fame as a song composer overshadowed his other achievements that the latter were so tardily recognized at their full worth. His fascinating waltzes (the Soirées de Vienne in Liszt's arrangement) and his highly characteristic Impromptus and Moments Musicaux are frequently heard. In chamber music it is only necessary to mention his superb string quintet with the two 'cellos, the pianoforte trios, and the D minor string quartet to fix his rank. At least two of his masses and several of his smaller choral works are highly valued.

Consult: Kreissle von Hellborn, Franz Schubert, eine biographische Skizze (Vienna, 1861; enlarged ed. 1865; English trans. by Coleridge, London, 1869), the most scholarly work; Frost, Schubert (London, 1888), a good popular biography; and the biographies by Reissmann (Berlin, 1873), Niggli (Leipzig, 1880), Friedländer (ib., 1883), and Heuberger (Berlin, 1902).

SCHUBIN, shoo'bin, OSSIP. The pseudonym of the German novelist Lola Kirschner (q.v.).

SCHUCH, shooG, WERNER (1843-). A Gerarchitecture at the Polytechnic Institute of man painter, born at Hildesheim. He studied Hanover, after which he practiced his profession

as architect and engineer until 1870, when he became professor at the Institute. He then took up the study of painting, continued it (1876) at Düsseldorf, and after his return to Hanover, in 1878, painted his first historical picture, "The Transportation of the Body of Gustavus Adolphus lived in Munich (1882-86), Berlin (until 1893), to Wolgast" (City Hall, Nuremberg). Having and Dresden (1895-99), he finally settled in Berlin. His other works include "From the Time of Dire Need" (1877), "General Zieten at Hennersdorf" (1886), "General Seydlitz at Rossbach" (1886), "Battle of Möckern" (1895), all in the National Gallery at Berlin; "In Winter Quarters" (1884, Münster Gallery); "General Seydlitz Reconnoitring" (1885, Breslau Museum); "Apotheosis of Frederick III." (1893, Danzig Museum); and the mural painting "The Allied Monarchs at Leipzig" (1888, Feldherrenhalle, Arsenal, Berlin). Schuch is also known as a portrait painter and illustrator.

SCHUCHARDT, shoog'ärt, HUGO (1842–). A German Romance philologist, born at Gotha. He was educated in the universities of Jena and Bonn. In 1873 he was appointed professor of Romance philology at Halle, whence he was called in 1876 to Gratz. His publications include: Vokalismus des Vulgarlateins (3 vols., 1866-68); Ritornell und Terzine (1874); SlawoDeutsches und Slawo-Italienisches (1884); Romanisches und Keltisches (1886); Aus Anlass des Volapüks (1888); Baskische Studien (1893); and Weltsprache und Weltsprachen (1894).

SCHÜCKING, shuk'ing, LEVIN (1814-83). A German novelist, born near Münster. He studied law at Munich, Heidelberg, and Göttingen, but,

after returning to Munich, gave up the law for letters. His first efforts, published in 1842, were descriptive: Das malerische und romantische Westfalen, and Der Dom zu Köln und seine Vollendung. In 1843 he went to Augsburg as one of the editors of the Allgemeine Zeitung, and thence he removed to Cologne to take charge of the Kölnische Zeitung. His numerous novels include: Ein Schloss am Meer (1843); Verschlungene Wege (1867); Die Heiligen und die Ritter (1872); Die Herberge der Gerechtigkeit (1878); Das Recht des Lebenden (1880). After his death appeared Lebenserinnerungen (1886). Although not profound, these works are wholesome and agreeable.

His wife, LUISE VON GALL (1815-55), was born in Darmstadt. She published her first volume, Frauennovellen, in 1844, and this was followed by the novels Gegen den Strom (1851) and Der neue Kreuzritter (1853). She was also the author of a successful comedy, Ein schlechtes Gewissen (1842).

SCHULTE, shool'te, JOHANN FRIEDRICH VON (1827-). A German jurist, born at Winterberg, Westphalia. In 1854 he became professor of canon law at Prague. His opposition to the doctrine of Papal infallibility, as consistorial councilor, attracted much attention and criticism. In 1873 he became professor at Bonn. From 1874 to 1879 Schulte was a member of the German Reichstag, where he voted with the National Liberals. He is considered an authority on canon law. His publications include: System des katholischen Kirchenrechts (1855); Die Lehre von den Quellen des katholischen Kirchenrechts (1860); Die Rechtsfrage des Einflusses der Regierung bei den Bischofswahlen (1869).

SCHULTENS, skul'tens, ALBERT (1686-1750). A Dutch Semitic scholar. He was born in Groningen, studied there, at Utrecht, and at Leyden, and after two years as pastor at Wassenaar, near Leyden, in 1713 became professor of Oriental languages at Franeker, whence in 1729 he removed to Leyden. There he became professor of Arabic-the study of which he insisted was a necessary adjunct to Hebrew-and of Hebrew antiquities. He was the first comparative philologist in Semities, and wrote Institutiones ad Fundamenta Lingua Hebraica (1737), Origines Hebrææ (1724-38), the unfinished Institutiones Aramac (1745-49), and versions, with commentaries, of Job (1737) and of the Book of Proverbs (1748).

SCHULTZ, shults, ALWIN (1838-). A German art critic and historian, born at Muskau, Lusatia. After studying archæology and Germanic philology at Breslau, he established himself there as docent for art-history in 1866, was appointed professor in 1872, and called to the University of Prague in 1882. His most important publications include: Schlesiens Kunstleben im 13. bis 18. Jahrhundert (1870-72); Die Legende vom Leben der Jungfrau Maria und ihre Darstellung in der bildenden Kunst des Mittelalters (1878); Das höfische Leben zur Zeit der Minnesinger (2d ed. 1889); Kunst und Kunstgeschichte (2d ed. 1901); Deutsches Leben im 14. und 15. Jahrhundert (1892); and Allgemeine Geschichte der bildenden Künste (1894 et seq.).

SCHULTZ, Sir JOHN CHRISTIAN (1840-96). A Canadian administrator, born in Amherstburg, Ontario, and educated at Victoria University

(M.D., 1861). In Riel's Rebellion (1870) Schultz was imprisoned and condemned to death by Riel for loyalty to the British flag and the Canadian party. From 1871 to 1882 he was a member of the Dominion House of Commons and from 1888 to 1895 Lieutenant-Governor of Manitoba. Schultz was a member of the Executive Council of the Northwest Territories, and president of the Manitoba Southwestern Railway. He died suddenly in Monterey, Mexico, about a year after he became K. C. M. G.

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SCHULTZE, shul'tse, FRITZ (1846-). German philosopher, born at Celle and educated at Jena, Göttingen, and Munich. He was professor extraordinary of philosophy at Jena in 1875-76 and became in the latter year professor of philosophy and pedagogy in the Royal Polytechnic Institute of Dresden. Among his works may be named: Der Fetischismus: Ein Beitrag zur Anthropologie und Religionsgeschichte (1871); Geschichte der Philosophie der Renaissance (1st vol. 1874); Philosophie der Naturwissenschaft (1881-82); Stammbaum der Philosophie (1890); Der Zeitgeist in Deutschland, seine Wandlung im 19. und seine muthmassliche Gestaltung im 20. Jahrhundert (1894).

SCHULTZE, MAX SIGISMUND (1825-94). An eminent German anatomist and cytologist. He he studied at Greifswald and Berlin. In 1854 he was born at Freiburg in Breisgau. After 1845 1859 was called to the chair of anatomy in the was appointed adjunct professor in Halle, and in University of Bonn. His chief works are on turbellarian worms (1851); on the Foraminifera of the Adriatic Sea (1854); on the embryology of various worms and of the lamprey; on the

mode of termination of the finer nerves in the organs of sense; and on the electric organs of fishes; but his most notable contribution to general biology was his work on the nature of protoplasm and of cells (q.v.). He was the first, after Dujardin, to establish the nature of protoplasm of rhizopods and to show that it was the fundamental substance of both animals and plants. His results are embodied in his tract Das Protoplasma der Rhizopoden und der Pflanzenzellen. Ein Beitrag zur Theorie der Zelle (Leipzig, 1863). He adopted Mohl's term 'protoplasm,' applied by that botanist to plants alone, and extended it to include that of animals. Schultze was also the founder and editor of the Archiv für mikroskopische Anatomie.

SCHULZ, shults, ALBERT (1802-93). A German writer on mediaval literature, especially the Arthurian legends. He was born at Schwedt, studied law, and entered the judicial service at Magdeburg. His valuable studies in his special field, published under the pseudonym San Marte, include a version of the "Parzival” in Leben und Dichten Wolframs von Eschenbach (1836-41), Die Arthursage (1842), Nennius und Gildas (1844), Beiträge zur bretonischen und keltischgermanischen Heldensage (1847), and Rückblicke auf Dichtungen und Sagen des deutschen Mittelalters (1872).

SCHULZ, JOHANN ABRAHAM PETER (17471800). A German composer, born at Lüneburg. He studied with Kirnberger at Berlin, taught there, and became musical director at the French theatre in 1776, holding the appointment for two years. In 1780 he became Kapellmeister to Prince Heinrich at Rheinsberg and afterwards

was conductor at Copenhagen. He published: Gesänge am Clavier (1779) and Lieder im Volkston (1782), which were printed together, with augmentations, as Lieder im Volkston in 1785; Chansons Italiennes (1782); operettas and operas; the oratorio Johannes und Marie; and the passion cantata Christi Tod. He was a song composer of great originality.

SCHULZ, MORITZ (1825-1904). A German sculptor, born at Leobschütz, Upper Silesia. He studied at the Industrial School in Posen, at the Berlin Academy, and as a pupil of Friedrich Drake. From 1854 to 1870 he lived in Rome, studying the old masters and executing numerous works. Upon his return he prepared for the Monument of Victory in the Königsplatz of Berlin a bronze relief of the battle of Königgrätz. A series of decorations by him representing elementary instruction in the arts of painting and sculpture occupies a place in the entrance to the National Gallery, together with a frieze, 22 meters in length, depicting "The Triumph of the Artists," or the history of German art as displayed in its chief representatives. His further works include a statue of Frederick the Great for Thorn, and numerous subjects derived from allegory or classical mythology.

SCHULZE, shul'tse, ERNST (1789-1817). A German poet, born at Celle. He studied theology at Göttingen, but afterwards devoted himself to philology. The death of Cäcilie Tychsen, in whose memory his epic Cäcilie (1818) was written, clouded all his later life. His writings are romantic in style and mainly in allegorical form. The epic Die bezauberte Rose (1818), his last work, is a poem of classic beauty of style. Sämtliche poetische Werke were edited by Bouterwek (3d ed., with biography by Marggraff, Leipzig, 1855).

SCHULZE, FRANZ EILHARD (1840-). A German zoologist, born in Eldena and educated at Rostock and Bonn. He was professor at Rostock 1865-73, at Gratz, until 1884, and then at Berlin, where he became director of the Zoological Institute. Schulze sailed in the Pomerania expedition, while he was at Rostock; specialized on sponges, and wrote Amerikanische Hexactinelliden. His most important single discovery was that of the sponge Halisarca, a mere germinal cell (1877).

SCHULZE, FRIEDRICH AUGUST (1770-1849). A German novelist, born in Dresden. His first novel, Der Mann auf Freiersfüssen (1801), was favorably received, but his work as a whole is without particular value. Under the pseudonym Friedrich Laun he wrote many volumes, and with Apel edited a Gespensterbuch (1810-14).

SCHULZE, FRIEDRICH GOTTLOB (1795-1860). A German economist, born at Obergävernitz, near Meissen, and hence called Schulze-Gävernitz. He was educated at Leipzig and Jena; became professor in the latter university in 1821, and, after founding there an agricultural institute, the first connected with a German university, in 1832 went to Greifswald, where he established a similar training school. These institutions exercised great influence throughout Germany. In 1839 he returned to Jena. Schulze wrote Deutsche Blätter für Landwirtschaft und Nationalökonomie (1843-59), Nationalökonomie oder Volkswirtschaftslehre (1856), and the posthumous

Lehrbuch der allgemeinen Landwirtschaft (1863). A memorial to him was erected at Jena in 1867. Consult: Birnbaum, Schulze als Reformator der Landwirtschaftslehre (Frankfort, 1860), and the biography by his son, Hermann (Heidelberg, 1888).

A Ger

SCHULZE, JOHANNES (1786-1869). man educator and administrator. He was born at Brühl, in Mecklenburg-Schwerin, studied at Halle, and taught at Weimar and Hanau. In 1813 he became chief counselor on education in Frankfort, in 1815 a member of the Coblenz consistory, and in 1818 referendary to the Prussian Ministry of Education in Berlin, a post he kept until 1840, and one in which his great work of reforming the educational methods in the higher schools of Prussia was performed. In 1849 he was appointed director of the Department of Education, an office he resigned ten years afterwards. He was an ardent Hegelian and edited Hegel's Phänomenologie des Geistes (2d ed. 1841), and some of Winckelmann's works. Consult Varrentrapp, Johannes Schulze und das höhere preussische Unterrichtswesen (Leipzig, 1889).

SCHULZE-DELITZSCH, daʼlich, HERMANN (1808-83). A German economist and sociologist, the founder of the German coöperative movement. He was born at Delitzsch, studied jurisprudence at the universities of Leipzig and Halle, and subsequently held judicial positions at Naumburg and Berlin, playing a prominent part in the liberal movement of 1848-49 in Prussia. Schulze-Delitzsch advocated coöperation and devoted himself to the establishment of cooperative associations which should secure to the laborers the benefits of the wholesale market. Coöperative banks were also established, which lent money on moderate terms. He endeavored to accustom the people to rely upon their own initiative to improve their condition. He declared that the function of the State should be limited to assurSchulzeDelitzsch's writings are chiefly in the form of ing industrial and personal liberty. embodied in: Information on Professional and pamphlets. His most important doctrines are Labor Associations (1850); Manual of Associa tion for Artisans and German Workmen (1853); Suppression of Social Reform by Lasalle (1866); Social Rights and Duties (1867); Development of Coöperative Associations in Germany (1870). Consult Bernstein, Schulze-Delitzsch. Sein Leben und Wirken (Berlin, 1879).

SCHULZE-GÄVERNITZ, gā vēr-nits, GERHART VON (1864-). A German economist, born in Breslau. He became professor at Freiburg in 1893, and at Heidelberg in 1896, and then returned to Freiburg. He wrote Zum sozialen Frieden (1890), Grossbetrieb (1892), Thomas Carlyles Welt- und Lebensanschauung (1893), Volkswirtschaftliche Studien aus Russland (1899), and other historical and critical studies.

SCHUMACHER, shoo'mäG-ĕr, HEINRICH CHRISTIAN (1780-1850). A Danish astronomer, born at Bramstedt, Holstein. He studied at Kiel, Jena, Copenhagen, and Göttingen. In 1810 he became adjunct professor of astronomy in Copenhagen. In 1813 he was appointed director of the Mannheim observatory, and in 1815 professor of astronomy and director of the Copenhagen observatory. In 1822 he published tables of the distances of Jupiter, Saturn, Mars, and Venus

and a surprisingly skillful pianist. Schumann placed himself under Wieck's instruction, continuing until 1829, when he entered the University of Heidelberg. As a result of his assiduous devotion to music, he soon became known throughout Heidelberg as a skillful pianist, and even received invitations to play at Mann

SCHUMANN, shoo'män, KLARA (1819-96). Wife of Robert Schumann, and under her maiden name, Klara Wieck, one of the best known concert pianists of her generation. She was the daughter of Frederick Wieck (q.v.), from whom she received her musical education. At thirteen years of age she began the concert tours which made her famous and which led to her acquaintance with Schumann. After the death of her husband she lived for several years in Berlin, and during this period wrote some of her most charming songs. From 1878 to 1892 she served on the faculty of the Hoch Conservatorium at Frankfort. Her compositions are largely in the style of her husband, and are marked by much sincerity and some originality. They in clude: Op. 12, 12 poems by Rückert, set to music by Robert and Klara Schumann (Nos. 2, 4, and 11 by the latter); a pianaforte concerto (op. 7); a trio (op. 17); the violin romances (op. 22); and several preludes, fugues, variations, and exercises.

SCHUMANN, MAX (1827-89). A Prussian military engineer, famous for his efforts to utilize armor-plate in warfare. He was born in Magdeburg. At the time of the American Civil War he became interested in the subject of armored fortifications, which he proceeded to study in England (1863-65). During the FrancoPrussian War he was on fortification duty, and in 1872 he retired, immediately entering the Gruson works. There he devised an armored gun-carriage, an armored mortar-platform, a disappearing carriage, and a steel wire net for defense. A rotary iron-clad tower planned by him was adjudged at Bucharest (1885-86) superior to that of Mougin. Schumann described the

salient features of his innovations in Die Bedeut

ung drehbarer Geschützpanzer für eine durchgreifende Reform der permanenten Befestigung (2d ed. 1885), and "Die Panzerlafetten und ihre fernere Entwickelung," in the Internationale Revue (1886). Consult Schröder, Schumann und die Panzerfortifikation (Berlin, 1890).

SCHUMANN, ROBERT (1810-56). A famous German composer. He was born at Zwickau, Saxony, where his father was a bookseller and publisher. At Zwickau he received little musical instruction beyond piano lessons from an oldfashioned, pedantic teacher, Kuntzsch. Until he was twenty-one years old he had no instruction in composition. He then placed himself under Heinrich Dorn at Leipzig. He had begun to compose, however, according to his own statement, when he was eleven years old, setting the 150th Psalm to music. His father died in 1826, and his mother being violently opposed to his choosing a musical career, Robert in 1828 matriculated at the University of Leipzig as a law student.

Most important at Leipzig was his acquaintance with Friedrich Wieck, a gifted musician, and his daughter Klara, then in her ninth year,

include several short pieces, which afterWards appeared among the Papillons, and in 1830 he composed his Variations on the Name of Abegg, which owed their origin to the lively impression made upon him by Meta Abegg. In the spring of 1830 Schumann went to Frankfort to hear Paganini. The deep impression the great violinist's playing made upon him is shown by his adaptation and elaboration of several of the famous capriccios for the piano.

Schumann now determined to abandon law and

devote himself to music. In notifying his mother he referred her to Wieck for an opinion as to his abilities, and on his mother's writing to Wieck, the latter's decision was in favor of Schumann. He was at last beginning to realize the disadvantage of having neglected theoretical studies. Yet even now he did not take up these at once. On his return to Leipzig he resumed his piano lessons with Friedrich Wieck and lived at his house. An accident for which he himself was responsible forced him to give up piano playing and devote himself wholly to composition. Dissatisfied with the progress he was making as a pianist, he devised a system of digital gymnastics, with the result that he injured the sinews of the third finger of his right hand so severely that he never fully regained its use. It was this forced abandonment of a pianist's career which led him to seek instruction in composition from Heinrich Dorn, who took him as a pupil.

an

The year 1831 is important because during it Schumann first came before the public as a musical critic, contributing to the Allgemeine Musik-Zeitung enthusiastic critique of Chopin's Don Juan Fantasia. In November, 1832, he was in Zwickau, where at a concert given by Klara Wieck, then thirteen years old, a symphony by him in G minor, now wholly unknown, was performed. On his return to Leipzig he removed from the Wiecks' house, but continued on an intimate footing with the family. In 1833 he completed the Paganini transcriptions, and wrote his piano impromptus on a theme by Klara Wieck, a composition which has romantie interest, as the young pianist, with whom his relations at that time were wholly artistic, later became his wife and did much to make his music famous.

In 1834 Schumann and several other enthusiastic musicians and critics banded themselves under the name "Davidsbündler" to wage war against philistinism in music, as David had against the Philistines. They established the Neue Zeitschrift für Musik. Schumann's contributions, when not over his own name, were signed Florestan, Eusebius, Meister Raro, "2" and "12." They were of the highest importance, for he possessed the gift of recognizing incipient genius. One of his later critiques in which, under the title "Neue Bahnen," he hailed Brahms, who was almost unknown, as a musical Messiah, is a most notable example of musical prescience. Through the columns of his paper he accelerated the growing fame of Schubert and Mendelssohn,

aided Franz and Gade, and practically introduced Berlioz to the musical world by his review of the Symphonie phantastique. In all matters relating to the achievements of other musicians he was most liberally appreciative, save in the case of Wagner, whom, at first inclined to regard favorably, he afterwards opposed.

Schumann's important musical work of 1834 was the Etudes symphoniques. The following year saw the production of two sonatas, the first, in F sharp minor, significantly dedicated "to Klara." Subsequently he went to Vienna in hopes of there placing the Neue Zeitschrift on a more remunerative basis, but was unsuccessful. It was during his Vienna sojourn, however, that he visited Schubert's brother Ferdinand and discovered Schubert's great C major Symphony. Friedrich Wieck had long opposed the marriage of his daughter to Schumann, but in September, 1840, they were at last united. The years of Schumann's uncertainty regarding the result of his ardent passion had been productive of some of his finest music. "Truly," he wrote to Dorn, "the contest for Klara has yielded much music." Several of the beautiful "Fantasiestücke," "Noveletten," "Nachtstücke," and the "Faschingsschwank aus Wien" for piano; his first symphony; and above all the songs, 138 in number, written in 1840, and including the famous "Liederkreis" and "Dichterliebe" of Heine and "Frauenliebe und Leben" of Chamisso, are among the productions inspired by

his love for Klara.

a

When Mendelssohn founded the conservatory at Leipzig, Schumann, who was on terms of intimacy with him, became one of the instructors, but made little impression as teacher. Among the important works composed before his removal to Dresden are the choral work Das Paradies und die Peri and the celebrated piano quintet. The Schumanns resided in Dresden from 1844 to 1850, when they settled in Düsseldorf. The principal works of the Dresden period are the piano concerto (op. 54), the C major Symphony, the opera Genoveva (unsuccessfully produced in Leipzig, 1850), the Manfred music, and the scenes from Goethe's Faust. Schumann's conductorship of the ChorgesangVerein also was productive of much choral music.

Even while in Dresden he had suffered from attacks of melancholia, and these became frequent after he moved to Düsseldorf, whither he had been called as musical director. Here, nevertheless, he composed the Rhenish Symphony (inspired by the festivities incidental to the elevation of the Archbishop of Cologne to the rank of cardinal) and the D minor Symphony. On February 27, 1854, during a fit of melancholy, he attempted suicide by jumping into the Rhine. He was rescued and taken to a private asylum at Endenich, near Bonn, where he died, July 29,

1856.

Schumann's compositions are essentially expressions of moods. He was one of the most subjective, most "intimate" of composers, and for this reason most successful in the more compact forms such as the Lied, and in one-movement pieces like his "Noveletten" and "Fantasiestücke," or in works consisting of a series of smaller divisions like his "Kinderscenen" and "Faschingsschwank." While this is true in a general way, the piano concerto, piano quintet, sonata in G minor, and his first and second symphonies rank among the best of their kind,

though, as regards the symphonies, his orchestration is far from brilliant. In his compositions he was one of the founders, and in his writings the chief advocate of the Neo-Romantic School, and perhaps nowhere have the tendencies of this school found more compact and eloquent expression than in his songs. They differ from those of his immediate forerunner, Schubert, in a closer interknitting of voice and accompaniment, in which respect Brahms is, par excellence, Schumann's successor. Consult the biographies by Wasielewski (Eng. trans., Boston, 1871), Reissmann (Berlin, 1879), Spitta (Leipzig, 1883), Fuller-Maitland, in the "Great Musicians" series (New York, 1884), Erler (Berlin, 1887), Riemann (Leipzig, 1887), and Batka (ib., 1892). Also Jansen, Die Davidsbündler (Leipzig, 1893); Wasielewski, Schumaniana (Bonn, 1884); and Vogel, Schumanns Klaviertonpoesie (Leipzig, 1887).

SCHUMANN-HEINK, hink, ERNESTINE, née ROESSLER (1861-). A German dramatic contralto, born at Lieben, near Prague. She studied with Marietta von Leclair at Gratz, and made her début at Dresden in 1878, as Azucena in Il Trovatore. For four years she sang in Dresden, and from 1883 in the Hamburg Stadttheater. In 1896, at Bayreuth, she took the rôles of Erda, Waltraute, and the first Norn, in Der Ring des Nibelungen. She was married to Heink in 1883, and to Paul Schumann in 1893. She made her American début in 1898, and sang with uniform success in Chicago, New York, and other cities.

SCHÜRER, shy'rer, EMIL (1844–). A German Lutheran theologian. He was born in Augsburg, studied theology at Erlangen, Berlin, and Heidelberg, became professor of theology successively at Leipzig, 1873, Giessen, 1878, Kiel, 1890, and Göttingen, 1895. He has published Die Gemeindeverfassung der Juden in Rom (1879), Die ältesten Christengemeinden im römischen Reich (1894), and, the work by which he is best known, Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Christi (1886-90; Eng. trans., 1886-90). After 1876, with Adolf Harnack, he edited the Theologische Litteraturzeitung.

SCHURMAN, shur'mån, JACOB GOULD (1854 -). An American educator, born at Freetown, Prince Edward Island. He began his academic education at Acadia College, Nova Scotia, and in 1875 won the Gilchrist Canadian Scholarship at the University of London, where he received his degree in 1877. Afterwards he studied at the University of Edinburgh, and at Heidelberg, Berlin, and Göttingen. From 1880 to 1882 he was professor of psychology, political economy, and English literature at Acadia College; from 1882 to 1886 was professor of English literature and philosophy at Dalhousie College, and in the latter year became professor of philosophy at Cornell University. In 1891 he was appointed dean of the Sage School of Philosophy at Cornell, and in 1892 succeeded Charles Kendall Adams (q.v.) as president of the university. He became editor of the Philosophical Review in 1892. In January, 1899, he was appointed by President McKinley chairman of the first Philippine Commission, and spent the greater part of the succeeding year in the Philippine Islands. His publications include: Kantian Ethics and the Ethics of Evolution (1881); The Ethical Import of Darwinism (1888); Belief in God (1890); Agnosticism and