Proverbios or El Centiloquio (1449), a collection of one hundred proverbs in eight-line stanzas; the Diálogo de Bius contra Fortuna (1448); and the Doctrinal de privados (1453). The dreamdialogue Comedieta de Ponza is an allegorical poem in Dantesque manner, founded on the disastrous naval combat off Ponza, in 1435, in which the kings of Aragon and Navarre and the Infante of Castile were taken prisoners by the Genoese. Santillana's complete Obras were edited by Amador de los Rios (Madrid, 1852). Consult Ticknor, History of Spanish Literature, i. (Boston, 1872).

SANT'LEY, CHARLES (1834-). An English barytone singer, born in Liverpool. He studied singing in Italy, later with Garcia in London, and appeared on the stage first in 1857. In 1859 he married Gertrude Kemble, a well-known soprano. He was for a few years with the Carl Rosa Opera Company, but his greatest successes came on the concert and oratorio platform. He toured with great success in America in 1871 and 1891, in Australia in 1889-90, and in Cape Colony in 1893. In 1892 he published Student and Singer. His ballads, songs, and church music are well known.

SANTO DOMINGO, sintô dô-môngô, or DOMINICAN REPUBLIC. A republic in the West Indies occupying the eastern and larger part of the island of Haiti (q.v.), with an estimated area of over 18,000 square miles (Map: West Indies, M 5). Through the centre of the western part of Santo Domingo extend the Cordilleras del Cibao, which form the backbone of the island. Through the eastern part stretches the Muertos range. Though mountainous, the whole region, which is richly forested, lends itself readily to tillage. The numerous small plains are traversed by navigable rivers, and are unsurpassed for fertility. The principal product is sugar, which is cultivated on extensive plantations, but largely by foreign capitalists. Cacao, coffee, and bananas are also grown extensively, and there are valuable forests of mahogany. Of late there has been some attempt to increase the cotton output, and American capital has been invested in the exploitation of the rich mineral resources, which comprise iron, gold, copper, coal, salt, and a few other minerals.

The commerce is very small, considering the vast natural resources of the Republic. The imports were $2,246,000 in 1897 and $2,986,921 in 1901, and the exports $3,568,000 in 1897 and $5,224,000 in 1901. The chief exports are sugar, cacao, coffee, mahogany, tobacco, bananas, and animal products. Over 60 per cent. of the trade is with the United States. The chief ports are Santo Domingo, Sanchez, and Puerto Plata. The communication and transportation facilities are utterly inadequate. There are altogether about 130 miles of railway lines connecting the ports of Sanchez and Puerto Plata with the interior. The Constitution of Santo Domingo, adopted in 1844, and repeatedly modified since then, provides for a President elected indirectly for four years and assisted by an appointed Cabinet. The legislative power is vested in a National Congress consisting of twenty-four deputies, elected for two years, by restricted suffrage. The governors of the provinces, the prefects, and magistrates are appointed by the President. The finances of the Republic are in a deplorable state. The revenue

is derived almost exclusively from customs duties, and the budget balances at something over $2,000,000. The foreign debt amounted in 1902 to over $18,900,000 and the internal debt to $2,845,550 gold and $10,126,629 silver. The standard of value is the gold dollar of the United States, adopted in 1897, but the actual circulation is composed of depreciated paper and debased silver. The Roman Catholic religion is recognized by the State. Primary instruction is obligatory and gratuitous, and a number of secondary schools are maintained by the State. The Republic maintains a small standing army and a estimated at 500,000, is composed principally of navy of three small gunboats. The population, a mixed race of Spanish and aborigines, mulattoes and negroes. The predominating language is Spanish. The capital is Santo Domingo.

In

HISTORY. The history of Santo Domingo forms a part of that of Haiti (q.v.) till 1844. February of that year the inhabitants of the Spanish part of the island proclaimed their inSantana, who became first President of the Dodependence under the leadership of Don Pedro minican Republic. He was followed in 1848 by the creole Jimenez, whose weak rule invited an attack by Faustin I. (Soulouque), Emperor of Haiti. Santana was made dictator and defeated Faustin at Ocoa, April 21, 1849. Another attempt by the Haitian ruler in the following year met with a like result. Buenaventura Baez, who was chosen President in 1849, was succeeded in 1853 by his rival Santana, who held power till 1856, in which year he repelled a third invasion from Haiti. He was succeeded by Baez, but in 1858 he regained power and ruled absolutely until 1861. In that year he proclaimed the annexation of Santo Domingo to Spain, and his action was at first acquiesced in by the people. The harshness of the Spanish rule, however, led to an insurrection in 1863, headed by José Maria Cabral, who in December, 1864, defeated the royalist forces near La Ganela. In May, 1865, Spain acknowledged the independence of the Republic. Baez was chosen President, but was driven out in 1866 and was succeeded by Cabral. The latter in turn had to flee in 1868, and Baez once more held power till 1873. During his administration occurred the negotiations with the United States looking toward the annexation of Santo Domingo, a favorite project with certain politicians in the United States since the early forties. During the early part of President Grant's administration, General O. E. Babcock was sent by the President to inquire into the conditions of the island and its resources. While there he negotiated a treaty of annexation (November 29, 1869), by which, on payment by this Government of $1,150,000, the Dominican Republic was to become part of the United States. The treaty was ratified by the Dominican people, but met with bitter opposition in the United States Senate, and was finally rejected by a tie vote. A Congressional commission visited the island in 1871 and presented an exhaustive report entirely favorable to annexation. It was laid before Congress by the President, but no action was taken upon it. The Dominican Government renewed its overtures in 1874, but met with no success. After the Presidency of Gonzales (1873-79) there came a period of disturbed politics. In 1884 Ulisse Heureaux was chosen President, and after two years again obtained office. He ruled with reso

lution and reëstablished order, but perished by assassination in October, 1899. He was succeeded by Jimenez, who in turn was driven out by General Vasquez in 1902.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Marlès, Histoire descriptive de Saint Domingo (Tours, 1869); Klein, San Domingo (Philadelphia, 1870); Gabb, "On the Topography and Geology of Santo Domingo," in Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, vol. xv. (ib., 1873); Hazard, Santo Domingo, Past and Present (London, 1873); Léal, La république dominicaine (Paris, 1888); Abad, La república dominicana: reseña general y stadística (Santo Domingo, 1889); Merino, Elementos de geografía física, política e histórica de la república dominicana (ib., 1889); Jordan, Geschichte der Insel Haïti (Leipzig, 1849).

SANTO DOMINGO. The capital of the Re'public of Santo Domingo, situated on the south coast, at the mouth of the Ozama (Map: West Indies, M 5). The city is regularly built, but its streets are unpaved. It is still surrounded by picturesque walls, and contains interesting remains from former times, such as the ruins of large and well-built stone mansions, contrasting strangely with the present straw-thatched dwell ings. There is a large Gothic cathedral, which was the resting place of the bones of Columbus until 1796, when what was believed to be the body of the discoverer was transferred to Havana, though the Dominicans claim that it still rests in their cathedral. A large statue of Columbus stands in the principal square. Other buildings and institutions worthy of mention are a former Jesuit college, a normal school, two hospitals, an arsenal, and barracks. The district is fertile. The city exports much sugar and coffee. Its harbor, however, is an open and dangerous roadstead, and the river is accessible only to very small vessels. Population, 25,000. Santo Domingo is the oldest European settlement in America, having been founded by Bartholomew Columbus in 1496.

SAN'TONIN (from santon-ic, from Lat. Santonicus, relating to the Santoni, from Santoni, a people of Aquitania; especially the Santonicum absinthium, Santonic wormwood, also called Santonica herba, Santonic herb, which abounded in Aquitania), CH180g. A neutral vegetable principle obtained from santonica, the unexpanded flower-heads of Artemisia pauciflora, a perennial plant of the order Compositæ, growing in Persia and Asia Minor. Santonin is colorless, odorless, crystalline, practically insoluble in water. It is one of the most efficacious of the class of medicines known as anthelmintics or vermicides for roundworms. Two peculiar symptoms occur after the administration of santonin. The urine often acquires a reddish tint, which may give rise to an unfounded suspicion of the presence of blood in that fluid; and under its influence vision becomes remarkably affected for a few hours, every object appearing either yellow or green, red, blue, or violet. This change may come on suddenly. It passes off, leaving no ill effects.

SANTORIN, sän'tō-ren' (Anc. Thera; Mod. Gk. Thira). An island in the Egean Sea belonging to the Greek nomarchy of the Cyclades (Map: Balkan Peninsula, E 6). It is situated 30 miles south of Naxos, and 120 miles east of the southeastern extremity of the Morea, and has an area of 27 square miles. It is crescentshaped, forming with two smaller islands the

edge of an ancient crater now occupied by a circular sheet of water into which the coasts fall precipitously to a great depth. The island consists chiefly of volcanic material and rises in the volcano of Hagios Ilias to a height of 1916 feet. Within historical times several new volcanic islets have risen from the surrounding water, the last in 1866. The island is treeless and poorly watered, but the volcanic soil is fertile. Wine and puzzuolana are exported. Population, in 1889, 11,924. The chief town is Thira, with a population of 1050. The island, under the name of Thera, was an important commercial State in ancient times and the mother country of the powerful colony of Cyrene in Africa. Remains of prehistoric dwellings have been found in Therasia and Southern Santorin, buried in part under an early eruption, of which the date cannot be determined with certainty. Mycenæan remains have also been found. The early inscriptions preserve a very primitive form of the Greek alphabet, containing only twenty of the twentytwo letters of the Semitic alphabet, and lacking the supplementary signs, though these were added under Ionian influence. (See ALPHABET.) Not only are the remains on the island important for the prehistoric civilization of the Egean, but the excavation of the ancient city of Thera on the southeast coast, which was begun in 1898, has thrown much interesting light on the local history and life of a Greek island, especially during the Hellenistic and Roman periods. Consult: Hiller von Gaertringen and others, Thera, Untersuchungen, Vermessungen und Ausgrabungen in den Jahren 1895-1898 (vol. i., Berlin, 1899; vol. iv., Berlin, 1902). The inscriptions are published in Inscriptiones Græcæ Insularum Maris Ægai, fasc. iii. (Berlin, 1898).

SANTORINI, sän'to-re'ně, GIOVANNI DoMENICO (1681-1737). An Italian anatomist, born in Florence and educated there by the Jesuits. He studied medicine in Pisa, under Malpighi, and then practiced in Florence, where he was professor of anatomy. His medical writings, especially those on anatomy and obstetrics, were long in high repute. Among his anatomical discoveries are the emissary veins leading out of the sinuses of the skull, the tubercles or cartilaginous knobs of the larynx, the risory muscles, and the gaps or fissures in the external ear.

SANTOS, sän'tōs. A seaport of Brazil, in the State of São Paulo, situated on the Atlantic coast 200 miles southwest of Rio de Janeiro, and 25 miles south of São Paulo, the capital of the State, with which it is connected by a railroad (Map: Brazil, H 8). It is a handsome city, with well paved and shaded streets, and fine public gardens. There is also a good water supply, but the location is nevertheless one of the most unhealthful in South America, being subject to annual epidemics of yellow fever. Recent drainage works have, however, somewhat improved its sanitary condition. The harbor ranks next to that of Rio in importance and in the amount of its trade and shipping. It is provided with wharves accessible for large ships, and in 1900 699 vessels, with a total of 869,718 tons, entered, and about as many cleared. A large number of immigrants pass through this port. Santos is now the principal outlet for the great coffee-producing State of São Paulo, having in recent years supplanted Rio de Janeiro as the greatest coffeeexporting port in the world. The export in 1900

amounted to 5,849,114 bags of 132 pounds each valued at about $44,000,000. Population, in 1900, estimated at 41,000.

SANTOS-DUMONT, sän'tos du'môn', ALBERTO (1873-). A Brazilian aëronaut and designer of air-ships, born in São Paulo. From an early age he was interested in practical mechanics and engineering, and especially in the literature of aëronautics, but it was not until 1897 that he attempted his first ascent at Paris, where he made his residence. Soon after he constructed and used a spherical balloon in which new and original ideas were embodied, and in 1898, profiting by his experience as an automobilist, he successfully applied a gasoline engine and propeller to an elongated balloon. For an improved air-ship he received the Encouragement Prize of the Paris Aëro Club in 1901, and in the same year with his sixth air-ship he made a trip from Saint-Cloud around the Eiffel Tower and back, winning the Deutsh Prize and receiving a medal from the Brazilian Government. Subsequently he devoted himself to improving his air-ships and to devising new types, especially for military and long distance work. For descrip

tion of these and other air-ships see AERONAUTICS. Consult Santos-Dumont, My Airships (New

York, 1904).

SANTO TOMÁS, to-mäs'. A town of Central Luzon, Philippines, in the Province of Batangas, situated 25 miles north of Batangas, on the main road and projected railroad between that city and Manila (Map: Philippine Islands, F 5). Popu

lation, estimated, 1899, 10,769.

SAN VICENTE, sän ve-sån'tå. A town of the Republic of Salvador, on the right bank of the Acahuapa River, 32 miles east of San Salvador (Map: Central America, C 4). It manufactures rebosos, silk shawls, shoes, hats, salt, spirits, and cigars. Population, about 10,000. SANZIO, RAPHAEL. See RAPHAEL SANTI. SÃO CARLOS DE CAMPINAS, soun kär’los då kam-pē’nås. See CAMPINAS.

SÃO FRANCISCO, fräN-sés’kō. The chief river of Eastern Brazil (Map: Brazil, K 5). It rises on the Serra da Canastra in the southern part of the State of Minas Geraes, and flows northeast through that State and the State of Bahia, then eastward on the boundary between Bahia and Pernambuco, and finally southeast between Alagoas and Sergipe, emptying into the Atlantic Ocean 200 miles southwest of Pernambuco. Its total length is about 1800 miles. The greater part of its course lies on the semi-arid plains of the Brazilian plateau. In its extreme upper course it is torrential, descending from the mountains in a series of rapids as far as the confluence with the Rio das Velhas, where it becomes navigable for large vessels. For the next 1000 miles of its course it is broad, deep, and navigable until it begins the descent of the escarpment, about 200 miles from the sea. Here it is completely obstructed by a series of rapids which end in the magnificent Falls of Paulo Affonso, where the river, narrowed to a width of 60 feet, plunges over a rocky ledge in three leaps with a total height of 265 feet. Below the falls, which have been called the 'Niagara of Brazil,' the river flows through a deep cañon, and only for the last 135 miles of its course is it navigable for sea-going vessels. It enters the ocean by

two mouths, both of which are partly obstructed by bars, though they admit vessels of 15 feet draught at high water. A railroad has been built around the falls, and another connects Bahia with Joazeiro on the upper course of the river, which is regularly navigated by inland steamers. The tributaries are all comparatively short, though several are navigable. The largest is the Rio Grande, one of whose branches, the Rio Preto, has continuous water connection with a branch of the Tocantins.

SÃO JOÃO D'EL REI, souN zhỏ-oun’děl ráẻ. A town of the State of Minas Geraes, Brazil, sixty-six miles southwest of Ouro Preto, on the right bank of the river Mortes. It is an important commercial centre, with railroad connection with Sabará and Rio de Janeiro. The town was founded in 1670 and was formerly celebrated for its gold and diamond mines. Now its chief industry is stock-raising. It exports hides, lard, and cheese. Population, about 10,000.

SÃO LEOPOLDO, lã'o-pōl'do. A town of the State of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, on a branch of the Jacuhy, twenty miles north of the capital, Porto Alegre (Map: Chile, G 9); The town is in a rich agricultural region, peopled almost wholly by Germans, many of whom are descendants of the first German colony of Brazil, established here in 1824. Population, about 7000. SÃO LUIZ DE MARANHÃO, 100-ésh' då mä'ra-nyoun'. A city of Brazil. See MARANHÃO.

France, the most important affluent of the Rhone SAÔNE, sōn (ancient Arar). A river of (Map: France, L 5). It rises in the Faucilles Mountains in the Department of Vosges, and flows south past Gray, Chalon, and Mâcon to its confluence with the Rhone at Lyons. It is 300 miles long, and navigable to Corre, 232 miles. Canals connect it with the Loire, the Seine, the Meuse, the Moselle, and the Rhine. The chief affluents are the Doubs and Ognon. Consult Hamerton, The Saône (London, 1888). SAÔNE, HAUTE. See HAUTE-SAÔNE.

A department of France.

SAÔNE-ET-LOIRE, å lwär. A southeastern department of France, bounded on the east by the Department of Jura and the river Saône, and on the west by the Department of Nièvre and the river Loire (Map: France, L 5). Area, 3,302 square miles; population, in 1896, 621,337; in 1901, 620,360. The country consists for the most part of fertile plains, watered by the rivers which give their names to the department, and separated by rich vine-clad hills. The most important cereals are wheat and oats. Coal is mined extensively, and there are important iron manufactures, the works of Le Creusot (q.v.) being in this department. Capital, Macon.

SÃO PAULO, Soun pou'ló. A State of Brazil, situated in the southeastern part of the Republic and bounded by Minas Geraes on the north and east, Rio de Janeiro on the east, the Atlantic Ocean and the State of Paraná on the south, and Matto Grosso on the west (Map: Brazil, H 8). Area, 112.280 square miles. The narrow strip of low coastland is succeeded by a mountain chain running parallel to the coast. The country west of the mountains is an elevated plateau, traversed by numerous river valleys. The western portion, adjoining the Paraná River, is little known and inhabited only by roving Indians. The chief riv

Africa, E 5). Area, 358 square miles. It is volcanic and mountainous, being more than 7000 feet high. The rainfall is abundant, and nearly the whole island is covered with luxuriant forests. The chief product is cacao, of which 14,914 tons were exported in 1901. Coffee and cinchona are also exported. There is considerable trade, the exports in 1900 being valued at $3,808,035. The capital, Cidade de São Thomé, is the residence of a governor, whose jurisdiction extends also over the neighboring Prince's Island. Population, in 1900, 37,776, 90 per cent. of whom

were negroes.

SAP (AS. sap, OHG. saf, Ger. Saft, sap; probably from Lat. sapa, must). The popular name for the watery solutions found in plants, and without exact scientific significance. It is properly applied only to the juices, though sometimes used to designate the slimy protoplasm which escapes from the delicate layers of cells lying between the bark and the wood in shrubs or trees. It exists in the interior of the protoplasm of active cells and also dead and otherwise empty cells, such as wood. The water absorbed by the protoplasm is first secreted in the form of minute droplets; these enlarge and merge one by one, until at maturity usually only one large sap cavity (vacuole) occupies the centre of the protoplasm. (See GROWTH, Fig. 5.)

This water takes up into solution' many of the foods manufactured by the plant and also a great many of the mineral salts which enter the plant from without. It is, therefore, a solution of a variable but very large number of the most diverse materials. The solution is usually very dilute, although in cells of storage tissues a considerable percentage of reserve food may be present. Thus in the cultivated beet the percentage of cane sugar in the sap runs from 10 to 17, while various gums, proteids, and salts are also present in smaller amounts. Expressed sap is utilized for flavoring palatable drinks, for sugar-making, for making various liquors, as pulque, etc. The sap of trees is popularly, but erroneously, supposed to ascend in the spring and descend in the autumn. The amount of sap in such plants increases from summer until early spring. Through the winter the tissues are saturated, and in cold climates they freeze solid. See CONDUCTION.

SAP (OF. sappe, Fr. sap, hoe, mattock, from ML. sappa, sapa, hoe, mattock, probably from Gk. okаnávη, skapane, hoe, from oкáTTEV, skaptein, to dig). A military term denoting a narrow trench, subsequently widened, which is continually prolonged in the desired direction, by digging away the earth at its head, and utilizing the same as a cover for the working party. A single or full sap is a trench with the parapet constructed at the head, and on its exposed flank. A double sap is so called when both flanks and the head of the sap are exposed to fire: two full saps are driven parallel and very near to each other, each with its parapet on the outer flank. The double sap is formed by removing the strip of earth dividing the two narrow trenches, the result being a single wide trench or sap with a parapet on each side. Running a sap has always been a difficult as well as dangerous operation, owing to the command of fire possessed by the enemy, and soon came to be restricted to night operations. The modern

searchlight and other electrical contrivances, however, make the hazard as great by night as it would be by day. The soldiers formerly detailed and trained for this work in the British Army were known as sappers. See SIEGE AND SIEGE WORKS.

SAPAJOU, or SAJOU. A French rendering of an obscure native name in Brazil (see SAI), now applied to the typical American monkeys of the genus Cebus, of which many species are known. The group includes some of the largest of American monkeys as well as those which have the largest brain capacity and show the greatest intelligence. The monkeys which range the farthest north are also sapajous. One of the most noteworthy species is the 'white-fronted' (Cebus albifrons), common in the forests at the headwaters of the Amazon and easily recognized by its light brown color and white forehead. Like the tribe generally, they live in troops of 30 or more and are great jumpers, leaping, it is said, 40 or 50 feet from tree to tree, when necessary. They are often made pets of, but are extremely jealous and are restless and irritable. One of the largest species is Cebus olivaceus, which is 44 inches long, 20 of which belongs to the tail. The 'sapajous' of the genus Ateles include the well-known coaitas or spider-monkeys (q.v.). Perhaps the best known of all is the weeper sapajou, or 'capuchin' (Cebus capucinus), whose fur has a golden tinge, and is short and even all over its head as though 'roached.' Young ones are constantly made captive. See Plate of AMERICAN MONKEYS.

SAPAN WOOD, SAPPAN WOOD (Malay sapang), or BUKKUM WOOD. The wood of Casalpina Sappan, an East Indian tree, about 40 feet high, with twice pinnate leaves, and racemes of yellow flowers, much used as a red dye, which is not easily fixed. It is largely exported from Singapore and other East Indian ports to Calcutta and to Europe.

SAP-CHAFER. One of many species of cetonian beetles which have mouth-parts formed for the sipping or lapping of vegetable juices rather than for boring or chewing. They feed indifferently upon the sap which exudes from wounds in trees or upon the juices of over-ripe or injured fruit or other succulent vegetable growth and upon pollen. One of the commonest species in the United States is the brown sap-chafer (Euphoria inda), a rather large brown variegated beetle which appears abundantly in the autumn over a large part of the Western States. The eggs are laid in the spring beneath the surface of the ground, and the larvæ, which are white grubs closely resembling the larvæ of the May-beetles and the figeater or June-beetle (qq.v.), feed upon decaying vegetable matter and soil humus.

BROWN SAP-CHAFER.

SAPHIR, sä'fêr, MORITZ GOTTLIEB (17951858). An Austrian humorous writer, born at Lovas-Berény, Hungary. He edited the Vienna Humorist from 1837 to 1858, and his humorous