anthem. In 1559 by a decree of Elizabeth the anthem became an essential element in the Anglican ritual. In respect to form a distinction was soon made between the full anthem and the verse anthem, the former containing more choral writing, the latter more solo numbers. In Germany the anthem was developed by the immediate predecessors of Bach into the Church cantata (Kirchenkantate), and Bach himself marks the culmination of this form. Bach's cantatas are more elaborate than the anthems, especially in the treatment of the instrumental accompaniment.

Independent of the Church service there arose the form of the oratorio. Catholic composers originated this form about 1575, and German and English Protestant composers adopted it. The German masters confined themselves in the selection of the texts to the Passion of Christ, as related in the Gospels. They introduced the character of the narrator and made free use of the chorale, thus adding an element of pious contemplation. In this form the oratorio became the Passion oratorio, or, briefly, the Passion. The perfection of this form is reached in Bach's Passion According to Saint Matthew (1729). See AMBROSIAN CHANT; ANTHEM; ANTIPHON; CANTUS FIRMUS; CHORALE; HYMNOLOGY; IMPROPERIA; MASS; MODES; MOTET; ORATORIO; PASSION; PLAIN CHANT; POLYPHONY; REQUIEM; SEQUENCE; STABAT MATER.

SACRED ORDER. A Siamese order for members of the royal line, founded in 1851 and reorganized in 1869. It had previously been a personal decoration of the King. The insignia comprises a rosette surmounted by a crown and set with nine different jewels. The ribbon is yellow, edged with red, blue, and green.

SACRED WARS (Gk. iepol wóλeμo, hieroi polemoi). The name given to the wars waged at the instigation of the Amphictyonic Council in Greece in behalf of Delphi. On the ground that the Phocian cities of Crissa and Cirrha had maltreated women returning from the shrine, and had exacted too heavy toll from pilgrims to Delphi, war was made on Cirrha about B.C. 596586 and the city was destroyed. About B.C. 357, the Phocians were charged with having cultivated ground sacred to Apollo and were heavily fined by the Amphictyonic Council. They retaliated by seizing Delphi, and by the aid of the treasure prolonged the war for ten years, when they were finally overpowered by Philip of Macedon, and their towns dismantled. On a similar accusation made in B.C. 339 by Eschines, the Amphictyons declared war against the Locrians, and made Philip commander-in-chief. When his operations seemed to be directed against Athens, Demosthenes succeeded in forming an alliance with the Thebans and the struggle ended in the battle of Chæronea, which put Greece at the feet of Philip. A war between the Phocians and Delphians in B.C. 448 also figures as a sacred

war.

SACRED WAY (Lat. via sacra, Gk. lepǹ dôós, hiere hodos). (1) A famous road leading from Athens northwest to Eleusis. It issued from the city at the Dipylon Gate, passing through the Ceramicus and continuing through the Pass of Daphne. It was the route of the great annual procession of the mysteries, and was for the greater part of its length lined on both sides with tombs, many of which are preserved, together

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with remains of shrines and temples. (2) The most important street of the ancient Roman Forum, forming the chief means of communication with the Capitol. Starting near the Meta Sudans in the hollow of the Colosseum, it passed between the Palatine and Oppian, some 150 yards north of its later line, leading through the Arch of Titus, thence diagonally between the Temple of Vesta and the Regia to the Vicus Tuscus, past the Basilica Julia to the summit of the Capitoline, a total length of about 860 yards to the foot of the ascent, which in Imperial times was called the Clivus Capitolinus. The road received its name from the three sacred huts of Vesta, of the high priest, and of the Penates brought from Troy. In early times it was divided into three sections, infima, summa, and clivus sacer. Its classic name was retained down to the ninth century.

SACRIFICE (Lat. sacrificium, sacrifice, a making sacred, from sacer, sacred + facere, to make). An offering to a spiritual power of something consumed in the service of that power. The word therefore includes the rite and the thing that is sacrificed, but excludes in the latter case, except when used metaphorically, such objects as are made over to a deity without being consumed (lands, temples, etc.). The deity is supposed to eat the sacrifice or its essence, sometimes only the blood (life) of the victim. In the developed ritual a sacrifice is generally made by an appointed priest (q.v.). Not all priests, howSacrifices are sometimes ever, are sacrificers.

divided, as among the Romans, into honorific and piacular. In either case the motive in making a sacrifice is the counterpart of that which induces a man to make an offering to another man. Thus the sacrifice is a means of benefiting, a token of esteem and brotherhood, or it is a palliation of actual or potential anger. The simplest form of sacrifice is when grain is flung upon the ground for spirits, either ancestral ghosts or goblins. But as this is usually the accompaniment of a family meal, so a great feast in honor of gods is merely an extension of the same idea. Such a sacrifice may be either vegetable or animal. Both kinds are enumerated in the Gudean tablets, and since both are offered to-day by savages, as they were common in classical antiquity and were known to the Aryans from a still more remote period, it is probably impossible to derive one from the other. There is, further, besides the simple vegetable sacrifice, the sacrifice made by offering intoxicating liquor, usually as an accompaniment of a feast, such as the beer sacrifice to Wuotan, the Soma sacrifice to Indra, and parallel offerings and rites among the Aztecs. Among animal sacrifices, as man is the best animal, human sacrifices have always held a prominent place. They were common among the Semites, not unusual among the Greeks and Romans (in a veiled form), and from time immemorial have been performed in India. The worshipers in some Saiva rites still eat of this sacrifice and many peoples are cannibals only at a time of sacrifice. The fruit sacrifice is sometimes clearly an afterthought, typifying a revolt against the cruelty of animal sacrifice. Thus in the Vishnu cult of India only vegetable sacrifices are permitted. In such a case, for animals are substituted cakes in the likeness of animals; or small animals first take the place of large animals and are in turn exchanged for effigies (as

in some Brahmanic rites); or, instead of being sacrificed, a victim is only beaten or otherwise maltreated, as in expiatory rites. The same notion survives in the mutual abuse of festivals, originally a means of purification.

In cases of piacular sacrifice, the gift serves as an atonement. This gift is usually the life (blood) of the sinner or of his substitute, but it may be merely a dish of food. In a totem system, the sin committed by the clan is often expiated by the sacrifice of some man or animal of the clan. In proportion to the god's anger the gift must be precious, and even the chief of the clan or his children must suffer. But piacular sacrifice may be made without any such notion and then a stranger or slave is sacrificed, as in the mom-i-ai rites, when victims are offered to atone for erecting bridges, building foundations, and the like. No sacrificial altar is needed for primitive rites, but as gods are or dwell in stones, fire, or water, gifts are made at the stone or thrown into the fire or water. In the former case, however, even after the conception of the divinity has changed, and the god is supposed to live in heaven, he is still imagined either to come to the stone or to smell the sacrifice offered thereon. Many religions, moreover, have the extension of piacular sacrifice known as the scapegoat. In this conception sin, like disease, clings to a man, but may be put off upon some one else, who is either driven away burdened thus with sin or is slain for the real sinner. The proxy sacrifice is a redeemer. In the Brahmanas we read that an animal sacrifice on a certain occasion represents a man who has bought himself off' by means of the animal. A tale of the same period recounts that a man who had been promised as a sacrifice to a god bought himself off' by purchasing another man for 1000 cows to serve as a redeemer. Redemption implies atonement, but atonement does not imply redemption. The mystical sacrifice of the Greeks, Semites, Mexicans, and other races is always an atoning sacrifice, and the victim represents the offended deity because the clan is of his blood; and by partaking of this blood, which symbolizes life, the clan renew their strength in communion with their god. (For various Christian views of the sacrifice of Christ and its effect, see ATONEMENT.) According to the view of the Roman Catholic and Eastern churches, Christianity is still, by the daily re-presentation of the one offering of Christ, essentially a sacrificial religion. For an exposition of this view, see MASS.

The piacular sacrifice has been explained by Robertson Smith as a development from a totem offering, consisting originally in smearing a bethel with wine and blood, in which the life of a member of the brotherhood is required (whereas in the commensal meal there is a feast). According to some scholars, all sacrifices have their origin in the same cult, but this is a great exaggeration. Sacrifice, whether as piacular or honorific, may be an offering of alien life, and it is impossible to derive from totemism the jollification of a drunken debauch in which the gods are invited to share. Inside the province of totemism sacrifice may be honorific or piacular, and in neither case is it necessary (although in the latter case it is common) to sacrifice a clanmember. Disregarding the totemic sacrifice, we have a mass of evidence pointing to the fact that sacrifice may be without implication of any blood

fellowship. Sometimes there are symbolic sacrifices. There can be no doubt, for example, that thuggery belongs to this class. The goddess of thuggery is the Dravidian mother-monster, to whom as symbolizing the reproductive power of nature (a different notion altogether from that of totemism) phallic rites are performed; but as representative of life human victims are offered to her. In the holocausts offered to the Aztec deities there is no expiation, but only propitiation by means of victims sometimes alien and sometimes native. The human sacrifice offered by the Assamese and by the Khasis, or again by the intermediate Naga tribes, are both expiatory and propitiatory. The Khasis, for example, kill (and eat) a stranger as a piacular rite to Thlen (the dragon); the Nagas expiate sin by sacrificing slaves (not of the same stock) and enemies captured in battle; and in Assam the privileged victims (feasted and petted till execution, as in Mexico) are strangers, though they are piacular as well as honorific victims. Such cases point to a wider conception of sacrifice than that put forward by those who deduce all sacrifice from one origin. The god earth, the only chain binding together all the Khond tribes in India, is a malignant demon, and propitiatory blood-sacrifice is made to him, but only to symbolize rain withheld by the demon, as the tears of the Aztec children symbolized rains ('sympathetic magic'). In its simplest aspect sacrifice is a gift intended to propitiate any spirit and not a renewal of a bloodbond nor an expiatory rite. Demonolatry has its sacrifices, and they are the earliest known as they survive to-day among such primitive savages as the Mishmis, who have no idea at all of a good god, but propitiate a demon with offerings. The motive of the sacrifice is to please as well as to benefit the spirit.

In view of the facts here cursorily considered, instead of starting with the assumption of totemism and endeavoring to explain all sacrifices as either a totemic commensal feast on a hostile victim or a piacular rite, it will be better to divide sacrifices into three main classes, as follows: (1) offerings made to goblins, ancestral spirits, or other spiritual powers, to propitiate them, such as grain to the Bhuts ('beings') and tithes to a king-god; (2) offerings made as a feast to great gods (distinguished guests), the sacrifice consisting of vegetables or of animals, or human aliens, often of intoxicating liquor; the idea of both (1) and (2) being that of a friendly gift, though (2) may in a totemic environment be a brotherhood feast; (3) sacrifices, either vegetable or animal, made to expiate sin. In a totemic environment a clan-member is the victim, but often an alien; in many cases only the life is demanded and the flesh is not eaten when an animal (including man) is sacrificed. These forms are not always distinguishable. A cannibal feast may be expiatory and may not be a commensal feast with the god. On the other hand, it may be commensal with the god and yet expiatory. As a general thing, piacular sacrifice is not primitive, but secondary, when ethical feeling is developed. Among sav ages sin against a god has no ethical side. A demon's wrath is simply inferred from trouble presumably caused by the god. The sacrifice is not to remove sin, but to avert anger, the usual cause of anger being a supposed neglect of the god, who has not enough food to satisfy him.

There are many savage tribes who thus offer sacrifice to goblins, gods, or demons whom they regard as quite apart from the clan-life, merely to be on good terms with a power susceptible to such bribery. Besides benefiting or revering a spirit, a third motive lies in pleasing a god by depriving one's self of something valuable; but this is included in the gift notion, which may be inspired by this idea rather than by the notion of benefiting the god. Consult: Robertson Smith, Religion of the Semites (new ed., London, 1894); Jevons, Introduction to the History of Religion (London, 1896); Tiele, Gifford Lectures (New York, 1897-99); Frazer, The Golden Bough (3 vols., revised ed., London, 1900); Tylor, Primitive Culture (New York, 1874); and see the articles NATURE-WORSHIP; SHAMANISM; and TOTEMISM.

SACRIFICE AMONG THE HEBREWS. The Old Testament presents sacrificial customs belonging to at least three different periods, the Pre-Mosaic, the Mosaic, and that which resulted in the Post-Exilic ritual; there are also many references to alien rites which intruded into the Israelitish religion. The Hebrew sacrificial ideas are of common origin with those of the other Semites, and may have been influenced by the Babylonian religion, but withal the Hebrew system was original enough to make its own selection and to develop in its own way. The materials of sacrifice were of two kinds, flesh and vegetable. In the former the Jewish ritual is distinguished by the limitation to domestic food-animals, namely, the bull, sheep, goat, turtle-dove, and pigeon. As the most valuable food and as the most typical because of its life, flesh was the preponderating element of sacrifice, and Zebakh, meat sacrifice, is the general word for sacrifice. The vegetable sacrifices consisted of all cultivated vegetable products, either in the raw state or in cakes of flour kneaded with oil and salted, also sometimes incensed. In the later ritual there is no libation of wine or oil, and leaven or other fermenting component was tabooed, with one exception (Lev. vii. 12). The sacrifices may be divided into three classes: the tribute sacrifice (minkhah, oblation'); the commensal (she lem, 'peace-offering'); the propitiatory, divided into several classes. In the first kind the worshiper rendered back to God, as the liege lord of the land, a typical part of his bounties. This included the first-fruits (q.v.) and the tithes of his fields and flocks; the matter of the sacrifice fell to the ministers of the sanctuary. The commensal sacrifice consisted in the sacrifice and the consumption by family or clan of an animal; it involved a sacramental meal, with all the necessary accompaniments of a banquet, bread, wine, etc. The Passover is an example. Here the primitive idea was of the common consumption by the divinity and his people of the same food, the portion consumed in the flame and the blood spilt on the ground being the god's portion, the rest of the carcass being that of the worshipers. While this was the prevailing sacrifice earlier, the later code made it yield to the third kind, the propitiatory. With the growth of ethical consciousness and of the sense of guilt toward offended Deity, and with the development of the transcendental idea of God, the festal, sacramental character of sacrifice was replaced by a solemn act of animal sacrifice to God, in which at the most only the priests

Το

shared. Such rites 'atone for' human sin, by propitiating God. At the same time, they were effective only for the general frailty of the Church or for unwitting sins of individuals, never for willful sin. Here are several classes, in all of which the blood appears as the atoning element. First, there is the whole burnt-offering (‘ōlāḥ, kālīl), in which class belonged the stated daily sacrifices. Secondly, the sin-offering (khattath), in which the fat was offered in fire, the flesh being burnt without the sanctuary, or, in individual offering, falling to the priest. this class belonged the supreme sacrifice of the later ritual, that of the Day of Atonement. The guilt or trespass offering was accompanied with a restitution for some specific offense. To this general department also belong the sacrifices of purification. In early times the sacrificer was the paterfamilias, chieftain, or king; in the later development sacrifice was confined to the Aaronic priesthood. Consult the Epistle to the Hebrews and the fifth division of the Mishna; Kurtz, Der alttestamentliche Opferkultus (Mitau, 1862; Eng. trans., Sacrificial Worship, Edinburgh, 1863); the archæologies of Ewald, Benzinger, Nowack, and the Old Testament theologies of Dillmann, Smend, and Shulz; Edersheim, The Temple and Its Ministry (London, 1874); Wellhausen, Reste des arabischen Heidenthums (Berlin, 1887); Robertson Smith, Religion of the Semites (London, 1894). For conspectus of Levitical laws, see Carpenter, Hexateuch (London, 1900, 1902).

SACRIFICE AMONG THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. With the Greeks, sacrifice offered to the gods of the upper world was a share in the daily or public meal, a rendering to them of a portion of the good things enjoyed by men. It is probable that in a sense every slaughter of a beast for food was accompanied by an offering of some parts of the animal to the god. In these bloody sacrifices there were many differences in the ritual, depending on the city, the god, and the period, but the main features of the common rite show no great variation. The victim was adorned with garlands and fillets, and the horns of cattle were frequently gilded. A basin of water was consecrated by plunging into it a brand from the altar, and the spectators, animal, and altar were sprinkled. Then barley groats mixed with salt were passed about, strewn on the victim, and thrown by those present into the fire. Hair was then cut from the brow of the animal and thrown into the fire, thus dedicating it to death. Then in solemn silence the victim was killed by cutting the throat, with the head turned back so that the blood might spurt upward. Large animals were first stunned with an axe. The blood was thrown on the altar, and parts of the entrails, bones, and a little flesh, along with incense, burned for the gods. From these sacrifices must be distinguished those offered to the gods of the lower world, to the heroes or the dead, where the blood was allowed to flow into the earth, and the entire victim was consumed or otherwise destroyed, as when animals were cast into the sea, rivers, or subterranean caverns. In these offerings we find dogs and animals unfit for food sometimes slain. Besides these bloody sacrifices, unbloody offerings of fruits, wine mixed with water, honey, milk, and especially cakes, were very common. Cakes in the form of animals were used by the poor

as substitutes for the more expensive victims. No wine was ever offered to the gods of the lower world. Their libations were honey, milk, and water. At some altars only bloodless offerings were allowed.

Among the Romans offerings were made daily and on special occasions by the family to the Lares, Penates, and other household gods. In their simplest form these consisted of the articles of daily food, milk, wine, beans, grain, cakes of many shapes and sizes, garlands, firstfruits of the flock or field, or incense. Similar were doubtless the public offerings of the early religion, and this simplicity was long preserved, accompanied by an elaborate and minute ritual. Thus in certain sacrifices the victim must be slain by a flint knife; elsewhere only hand-made earthenware vessels could be used, or the grain must be pounded, not ground. The swine was perhaps the commonest animal sacrificed, and the great offering was the Suovetaurilia (q.v.), or boar, ram, and bull. In the developed ritual the state sacrifices were usually bloody, and the choice of the animal was regulated by minute rules, which prescribed the color, age, and sex, as well as the kind of victim appropriate to the god or the occasion. Horses were only offered to Mars; for the gods of the lower world black or dark victims were prescribed, and white cattle for Jupiter and Juno as gods of the heaven; in the latter case we find that chalk sometimes helped nature in securing the needful color. While the old ritual seems to have prescribed very modest sacrifices, the later custom added extra victims, honoris causa, and often in great numbers. The ceremonial of the sacrifice consisted in a careful inspection of the victim, which was then brought to the altar decked with garlands, ribbons, and fillets. Here the offerer first threw incense and wine into a fire by the altar, and then symbolically slew the victim, the actual killing and cutting up being performed by servants. The exta (heart, lungs, liver, etc.) were carefully examined to see that they were perfect, then cooked, and offered on the altar to the god; the remainder of the animal was eaten by the priests and officials, or, in the case of private sacrifices, by the worshiper and his friends. In the case of foreign gods other rituals, especially the 'Greek rite' (græcus ritus), were followed. For the literature, see the articles on GREEK and ROMAN RE

LIGION.

SACRISTAN (OF., Fr. sacristain, from ML. sacristanus, sexton, from sacrista, sacristan, from Lat. sacer, sacred). A title applied in the Roman Catholic and Anglican churches to the official who has the care of the sacristy and the sacred vessels, vestments, and other valuables contained in it. The duties of the sacristan were originally performed by a separate class of clerics, who constituted the lowest of the four minor orders. (See OSTIARIUS.) The term sacristan has become corrupted into sexton, and the two terms are sometimes used interchangeably, although the sacristan proper has a more responsible office. In cathedrals and collegiate churches he is usually a dignitary of the chapter-in the English

cathedrals one of the minor canons.

SACRISTY (ML. sacristia, vestry, from sacrista, sacristan). An apartment attached to a church, in which are kept the sacred objects used in the public worship, and in which the

In

clergy and other functionaries who take part in the service assemble and prepare for the ceremonies on which they are about to enter. many European churches the sacristy is a spacious and costly building. Anciently there was a distinction between the sacristy, where the vestments were kept, and the treasury, where the books and vessels were guarded, these two chambers being placed on the right and left of the apse of the church, where they were replaced in the Middle Ages by the side-apses and chapels. Many church sacristies in Europe are still small

museums.

SAC'ROBOS'CO, JOHANNES DE, JOHN OF HOLYWOOD, or HALIFAX (?-1256). An English mathematician, probably born at Halifax, in Yorkshire. He was educated at Oxford, entered the University of Paris about 1230, and afterwards became professor of mathematics and astronomy there. Sacrobosco was among the first scholars of the Middle Ages to make use of the astronomical writings of the Arabians. His treatise Tractatus de Sphæra Mundi is a paraphrase of a portion of Ptolemy's Almagest ( (see ALMAGEST), and no book enjoyed greater renown as a manual among the scholastics. First published in Ferrara in 1472 (an edition now very rare), it passed through twoscore editions with many commentaries. Sacrobosco's work on arithmetic, Tractatus de Arte Numerandi (printed without place and date), variously called Opusculum de Praxi Numerorum quod Algorismum vocant (1510) and Algorismus Domini Joannis de Sacro Bosco (1523), contains the nine Hindu digits and the zero. He also wrote De Anni Ratione (1550). Consult: Eneström on Sacrobosco's arithmetic, in Bibliotheca Mathematica (1894); Halliwell, "Tractatus de Arte Numerandi," in Rara Mathematica (London, 1839).

A

SACRUM (Lat., sacred), or Os SACRUM. triangular bone situated at the lower part of the vertebral column (of which it is a natural continuation), and wedged between the two innominate bones so as to form the keystone to the pelvic arch.

It is readily seen to consist of five vertebræ with their bodies and processes, all consolidated into a single bone. Its anterior surface is concave, not only from above downward, but also from side to side. The posterior surface is convex, and presents, in the middle vertical line, a crest, formed by the fusion of the spines of the vertebræ, of which the bone is composed. The last sacral vertebra has, however, no spine, and the termination of the vertebral canal is here very slightly protected.

SACY, så'se', ANTOINE ISAAC, Baron Silvestre de (1758-1838). One of the greatest of French Orientalists. He was born in Paris, began the study of Hebrew at the age of twelve, and gradually acquired an extensive knowledge of Semitic and Iranian languages. Being intended for the civil service, he studied law, and in 1781 was appointed counselor of the mint. In 1785 he was elected a member of the Académie des Inscriptions, and rendered valuable service as member of a committee to publish unedited manuscripts in the royal library. During the Revolution he lost his position. He had already begun the decipherment of the Pehlevi inscriptions of the Sassanian kings, and in 1793 published his Histoire de la dynastie des Sassanides, translated from the Persian, with four dissertations. In

1795 he was appointed professor of Arabic in the newly founded Ecole des Langues Orientales, in Paris. In 1806 he became also professor of Persian at the Collège de France, and in 1808 was elected a member of the Corps Législatif. He was given the title of Baron in 1813, and in 1832 became a peer of France. With Abel Rémusat he founded the Société Asiatique in 1822. De Sacy greatly furthered the study of Arabic by his text-books: Grammaire arabe (1810; 2d ed. 1831); Chrestomathie arabe (1806; 2d ed. 1826), and its supplement, Anthologie grammaticale arabe (1829). Other noteworthy works were: Principes de grammaire générale (1799; 8th ed. 1852); a translation of Abd ul-Latif's Egypt with notes (1810); an edition of the Arabic book of fable, Calila et Dimna (1816), and of Farid-ud-din Attar's Pendnâme, with translation and an Arabic preface written by himself (1819); Mémoires d'histoire et de littérature orientales (1818), the Makamât of Hariri (1822; 2d ed. 1847-53); Exposé de la religion des Druzes (1838). There are biographies of De Sacy by Reinaud (Paris, 1838) and H. Derenbourg (ib., 1895).

SADDLE MOUNTAIN. The culminating group of the Taconic Mountains in northwestern Massachusetts. The highest peak is Mount Grey lock, 3533 feet, the loftiest mountain in the State.

SADDLERY (from saddle, AS. sadol, OHG. satal, satul, Ger. Sattel, perhaps a Slavic loanword, ef. OChurch Slav. sedlo, saddle; ultimately connected with Skt. sad, Gk. geodai, hezesthai, Lat, sedere, OChurch Slav. sesti, Goth. sitan, AS. sittan, OHG. sizzen, Ger. sitzen, to sit). The general furniture of horses.

An ordinary harness consists of leather straps, simple or padded, and of the various rings and buckles with which these straps are united and fastened.

With the invention of the leathersewing machine, the process of making harness has been greatly simplified. In general the parts of a harness are: Crown, blinders, throat-latch, front, cheek-piece, nose-band, bit, curb, check, and reins; the saddle, to which the terrets or rings are attached through which the reins pass and to which the check-rein is also attached; the crupper, a strap to secure the saddle in place, passing over the back of the animal and around its tail; the collar; the hames, which are fastened to the collar; the hame-link and the hame-strap, to which the traces are fastened; the pole-strap; the martingale, a strap to hold the horse's head down, which runs from the belly-band between the front legs to the bit or nose-band; the bellyband turn-back; the trace-tug, a loop depending from the saddle, which in a single harness supports the shaft and in a double harness the tug; the traces, sometimes also called tugs, which connect the collar with the swingletree; the hipstrap; and the breeching, or strap passing around the buttocks of the animal and attached to the shafts or pole, to enable him to back the vehicle or hold it back on a down grade.

The earliest known saddles were those which have been found in Egypt, which were not used for riding, but as the part of a draught harness which bears the load. Probably to the ancient Egyptians, as to the ancient Greeks and Romans, equestrian saddles were unknown. The forerunner of the saddle was the pad or saddle-cloth,

which was secured to the horse's back by one, two, or three girths. These seats, however elaborately padded, differed from the true saddle in having no tree. Saddles with trees did not come into use among the Romans till about the fourth century A.D. Stirrups did not come into use till three centuries later. Previously the rider mounted from a horse-block, or with the aid of his spear, and the Roman cavalry were subject to various ills caused by having their legs hanging for hours from the horse's back. Side saddles were introduced as early as the twelfth century. They were developed from the pillion or pad on which a lady rode sidewise behind her husband and steadied herself by holding on to his belt. The present type of side saddle seems to have come into vogue about 1650, but the third pommel or leaping horn, by which a firm grip is secured, did not appear till 1830. The saddles of different periods and among various nations differ much in their form and construction. The parts of a saddle are: the tree or foundation, consisting of the pommel or horn-like projection at the front of the saddle, the cantle or hind-bow, and the side bars; the padding, which is sometimes, as in the McClellan saddle, entirely omitted; the skirts, seat, and girth; the stirrups, which are attached to the side bars; the crupper, which is attached to the cantle. The tree is usually of wood, although in the French cavalry saddle it is of iron. It is fastened together with tenons and mortises and secured by a covering of canvas or rawhide, which is tacked on wet and then allowed to

shrink. The outer covering is usually of pigskin. Besides the saddle for horses, there are specially constructed saddles for other draught animals, as oxen, camels, and elephants. The pack saddle is shaped to hold securely the largest possible load. To increase its capacity panniers are sometimes added.

SAD'DLEWORTH. A woolen-manufacturing 11 miles southwest of Huddersfield. Population, town in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, in 1891, 13,475; in 1901, 12,300.

SADDUCEES (Gk. Zaddovkało, Saddoukaioi, from Heb. Saddūķim). The conservative and aristocratic party in the late Jewish commonwealth. The name is now generally derived from Zadok, high priest in Solomon's reign, from whom the later high-priestly line was derived, and whose descendants, the sons of Zadok,' according to Ezekiel's programme, were the only legitimate priests. (See LEVITE; PRIESTS.) Although this narrow restriction to the line of Zadok was not finally maintained, this family was the great majority in the later priesthood and formed its aristocratic and controlling element. This etymology agrees with the actual character of the Sadducees, who were the party of the priestly aristocracy as over against the democratic Pharisees (q.v.). The sharp distinction between the two was not made till the time of the Asmonean house in the second century B.C., but its origins go back to the fifth century, when, as we see in the book of Ezra-Nehemiah, a division began to arise between the priests who were the ministers of the cultus and hence a privileged and conservative class, and the Scribes (q.v.), who, although loyal to the cult and its ministers, were nevertheless interested in making the law the rule of life for the whole people. The Maccabean or