ery, wisdom, and fair dealing. During the Great Interregnum, which began in 1256, Germany was without an acknowledged head. In 1272 Pope Gregory X., alarmed at German disunion, used every means in his power to force an Imperial election. The great Rhenish princes, in whose hands rested the power of election, wished to find someone who would not be unmanageable or strong enough to excite jealousy. Their choice fell on Rudolph of Hapsburg, and he was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle, October 24, 1273. Rudolph's most formidable opponent was Ottokar, King of Bohemia, who refused allegiance to the new King. Rudolph made war upon him, vanquished him, and forced him to give up the duchies of Austria, Styria, and Carinthia, and some other territories (1276).

Ottokar, having renewed the war, was defeated and slain in a battle on the Marchfeld (1278). The Emperor, in 1282, invested his sons, Albert and Rudolph, with the territories wrested from Ottokar. (See AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.) Rudolph did a great service to Germany in suppressing the 'robber barons' and destroying their strongholds. He is said to have condemned to death thirty nobles and to have razed to the ground twice that number of castles. His efforts to preserve peace, by prohibiting private wars, were very acceptable to the towns and lesser nobles, but the lack of effective police and judicial organizations prevented the execution of his laws. Moreover, he antagonized the towns by attempting to raise an Imperial revenue by taxation. Consult: Kopp, König Rudolf und seine Zeit (Leipzig, 1845-49), continued by Busson (Berlin, 1871); Hien. Rudolf von Habsburg (Vienna, 1874); Schulte, Geschichte der Habsburger (Innsbruck, 1887); Zisterer, Gregor X. und Rudolf von Habsburg (Freiburg, 1891); and Redlich, Rudolf von Habsburg (Innsbruck, 1903).

RUDOLPH II. (1552-1612), Holy Roman Emperor from 1576 to 1612. He was the eldest son of the Emperor Maximilian II., and was educated in the Spanish Court by the Jesuits. On the death of his father, in 1576, he succeeded to the Imperial crown and to the possession of the Archduchy of Austria, Bohemia, and part of Hungary. He was weak-willed and little concerned with the affairs of government, which he left in the hands of the leaders of the Counter-Reformation. The liberalizing tendencies which had been at work in the Austrian dominions under his predecessor came to an end. Intolerance and persecution on the part of Rudolph aroused bitter discontent and in 1604 an insurrection broke out in Hungary. Matthias, the younger brother of Rudolph, put himself at the head of a formidable party against the Emperor, and in 1608 forced him to cede to him the government of Austria, Hungary, and Moravia. In 1609 Rudolph was forced to issue the Majestätsbrief, guaranteeing the Bohemians religious freedom, but at the same time preparations were already going on for the great struggle that was to break out in less than a decade. In 1608 the Evangelical Union was formed by some of the German States for the defense of the Protestant religion, and this was followed by the organization of the Catholic League in 1609. In 1611 Bohemia was taken from Rudolph and transferred to Matthias. The Emperor died January 20, 1612, without issue,

and was succeeded by Matthias. Rudolph's taste for astrology and the occult sciences, and his desire to discover the philosopher's stone, led him to extend his patronage to Tycho Brahe and Kepler. The important astronomical calculations begun by Tycho and continued by Kepler, which are known as The Rudolphine Tables, derive their name from this Emperor. Consult Gindely, Rudolph II. und seine Zeit (Prague, 1863-65).

RUDOLPH (1858-89). An Archduke and Crown Prince of Austria, son of Francis Joseph I. He was educated carefully and entered the army in 1878. He was an enthusiastic hunter and traveler, and the author of Fünfzehn Tage auf der Donau (1881), and Eine Orientreise (1884). He planned and partly edited the work Die österreichisch-ungarische Monarchie (1886 et seq.). Rudolph married Stephanie, daughter of Leopold II. of Belgium, in 1881. The Archduke was found dead in his shooting lodge at Meyerling, near Baden.

RUDOLSTADT, rõõ’dôl-stät. The capital of the Principality of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, Germany, on the Saale, 18 miles south of Weimar (Map: Germany, D 3). Its most beautiful church is the thirteenth-century Stadtkirche, rebuilt in the seventeenth century, and restored in 1879. The castle has been the residence of the Prince since 1599. The city has a palace with a natural history collection, a gymnasium, a national seminary, and a library of 65,000 volumes. It manufactures porcelain, pianos, metal and wooden artistic cabinet work, children's building-blocks, chocolate, essential oils, and chemicals. Rudolstadt is first mentioned in the year 800. It came into possession of Schwarzburg in 1355. Population, in 1900, 12,407.

RUDRA, roo'drà (Skt., howler, or perhaps, red, bright), or MAHADEVA, A deity of Vedic India. He is described as an archer bearing the lightning shaft, and in personal appearance he is of dazzling brilliancy. He is either copper-colored or with a black belly and a red back, while his neck is blue and his eyes are a thousand in num

ber. He is associated most frequently with the Maruts (q.v.), although in some passages he is identified with Agni (q.v.), or with Vishnu (q.v.). His character is twofold. For the most part he is represented as a terrible deity, mighty, and dangerous, to whom prayer must be offered to induce him to avert his shafts both from men and from animals, occasionally even from the gods, while disgraceful attributes are assigned to him in the later Vedic period. On the other hand, Rudra is a divinity of healing, and his blessings are besought repeatedly. In the postVedic period the place of Rudra in the Hindu pantheon has been usurped by Siva (q.v.). Consult: Muir, Original Sanskrit Texts (London, 1868-74); Macdonell, Vedic Mythology (Strassburg, 1897).

RUE (OF., Fr. rue, from Lat. ruta, from Gk. purn, rhute, rue), Ruta. A genus of about 50 species of half shrubby plants of the natural order Rutaceae, natives of Southern Europe, Northern Africa, the Canary Isles, and the temperate parts of Asia. Common rue or garden rue (Ruta graveolens) grows in sunny stony places in Mediterranean countries and is cultivated in American gardens. It has greenish-yellow flowers, and glaucous evergreen leaves with small

oblong leaflets, the terminal leaflets obovate. It was formerly called herb of grace (see Hamlet, act iv., scene 5), because it was used for sprink ling the people with holy water. It was in great repute as an amulet against witchcraft in the

RUE (Ruta graveolens).

time of Aristotle. The smell of rue when fresh is strong, and to many disagreeable; yet it is used in some parts of Europe in cookery. Some of the species found in Northern India are similarly used.

RUE CROWN. A Saxon order founded in 1807 by Frederick Augustus I., and intended as a distinction for high State officials. The cross is green, with white edges, and has golden rue leaves between the arms. The medallion is surrounded by a wreath composed of sixteen rue leaves and bears the initials of the founder, with the motto Providentia Memor.

A

RUEDA, гōō-Ã'Dȧ, LOPE DE (?-c.1567). Spanish dramatist, born in Seville, where he was a gold-beater for some time. It seems probable that he was a versatile actor and manager of his troupe. He was the first popular dramatist of Spain. His works include four 'comedies,' mostly from Italian sources, where there is much pleasant fooling and a plot usually hinging on mistaken identity. Rueda also wrote bucolic dialogues, which are somewhat stiff, and ten Pasos, all drawn from every-day characters. His complete works are published in volumes 23 and 24 of the Colección de libros españoles raros ó curiosos (1895-96).

RUELLIA (Neo-Lat., named in honor of Jean Ruel, a French botanist of the sixteenth century). A large genus of plants of the natural order Acanthacea, mostly natives of tropical and subtropical Asia and Australia. Some beautiful species are cultivated for ornament in hot-houses. In Assam and in some parts of China' Ruellia indigofera, called by some botanists Strobilanthes flaccidifolius, is much cultivated for the excellent indigo which it yields. A few species, especially Ruellia strepens and Ruellia ciliosa, with large blue or purple attractive flowers, are natives of the United States.

RUFF, or REEVE (probably from ruff, abbreviation of ruffle, from MDutch ruyffelen, to wrinkle; so called because of the neck-ruff). A European snipe (Machetes pugnax) noted for pugnacity. It is about a foot in entire length, and in color ash-brown, spotted or mottled with

RUFFED GROUSE. See GROUSE. RUF'FIN, EDMUND (1794-1865). An American agriculturist, born in Prince George County, Va. He attended William and Mary College from 1810 until 1812, and then, on the outbreak of war with England, enlisted in a volunteer company. After scarcely six months' service, however, he returned to the estate left him by his father and thenceforth devoted himself to agriculture. He made a number of experiments which resulted in the discovery of the value as a fertilizer of the great deposits of marl in Eastern Virginia. In 1833 he founded the Farmer's Register, a pioneer in arousing interest in scientific farming. In 1842 he was appointed agricultural surveyor of South Carolina, and later he founded the Virginia State Agricultural Society, of which he became president. As the oldest member of one of the military organizations which besieged Fort Sumter, he fired the first shot of the war at half past four o'clock, Friday morning, April 12, 1861. Four years

later when the conflict ended he committed suicide rather than give his allegiance to the United States. Consult Yearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture (1875).

RUELLIA (Ruellia ciliosa).

RUFFINI, ruf-fene, GIOVANNI (1807-81). An English writer of Italian origin, born in Genoa. He studied in his native city and came to know Mazzini, whose "Young Italy" (q.v.) he joined in 1833. He fled from Italy, and from 1836 to 1842 lived in England. He then went to France. The revolutionary movement of 1848 permitted his return to his native land, and he entered the Sardinian Parliament in that year, becoming in 1849 Sardinian representative at Paris. After the battle of Novara he returned to England and devoted himself to the writing of novels. He published Doctor Antonio (1855), Dear Experience (1878), Lavinia (1860), Vin

cenzo (1863), and other works. His autobiography appeared in 1853 under the title Passages in the Life of an Italian. RUF'FO, FABRIZIO (1744-1827). An Italian cardinal and general. He was born in Calabria, a descendant of the ducal family of Barnello, and was trained as a priest. In 1794 he was made cardinal. He entered afterwards the Neapolitan service, and offered stubborn and successful resistance to Championnet, who, at the head of a French army, attempted to capture Naples. Having gathered a large number of royalists in Calabria, with the aid of the celebrated brigand chief Fra Diavolo (q.v.), he expelled the French and the republicans from the country and restored King Ferdiand I. to the

throne in 1799.

RUFIJI, roo-fĕ'jė. The principal river in German East Africa. It is formed by the junction of the Luvegu and Ulanga and flows northeastward and then eastward, entering the Indian Ocean through a large delta 120 miles south of Zanzibar. The headstreams rise on the Livingstone Mountains northeast of Lake Nyassa, and flow through a sparsely inhabited forest country. Some distance below the confluence the Rufiji receives the Ruaha, which rises north of Lake Nyassa, and exceeds the main stream in length. The Rufiji is navigable for small steamers up to the falls below the confluence of its headstreams, above which the Ulanga is again permanently navigable for the greater part of its course.

RUG BY. A market town in Warwickshire, England, 15 miles northeast of Warwick (Map: England, E 4). It is an important junction of five different railways. It derives its celebrity from Rugby School (q.v.), founded in 1567. Population, in 1901, 16,830. Consult: Bloxham and Smith, Rugby: Its School and Neighborhood (London, 1889); Rimmer, Rambles Around Rugby (ib., 1882).

RUGBY. A town in Morgan County, Tennessee, 7 miles from Rugby station on the Cincinnati Southern Railroad, and 114 miles north of Chattanooga. The town was founded in the

expectation of developing an ideal community. The first steps were taken by New England capitalists, who soon transferred the enterprise to an English company, which invested £150,000 in a tract of 50,000 acres and improvements. The site was ready in 1880, and a colony of English farmers took possession. The plan contemplated a combination of industrial activity with attention to culture and out-of-door English sports; such as cricket and hunting, and it was expected that the colony would consist of both American families and the sons of English farmers of the better class in fair circumstances. It was, however, never successful, and after a few years the distinctive features of the colony were abandoned. The town is now a popular health resort.

RUGBY SCHOOL. A famous public school, situated at Rugby, England, founded in 1567 under the will of Lawrence Sheriffe as a free school for the children of Rugby and Brownsover. Edward Rolston was appointed the first master in 1574. Up to 1667 the school remained in comparative obscurity. Its history during that trying period is characterized mainly by a series of law suits between descendants of the founder, who

tried to defeat the intentions of the testator, and the masters and trustees, who tried to carry them out. A final decision was handed down in 1667, confirming the findings of a commission in favor of the trust, and henceforth the school maintained a steady growth. Under the vigorous administration of Francis Holyoake, headmaster from 1688 to 1731, Rugby assumed considerable importance among English public schools, there being at one time an enrollment of more than 100 pupils. Thomas James, an Etonian by education, was elected headmaster in 1778. He was an accomplished scholar in classics and mathematics, and a firm disciplinarian. He introduced exhibitions, forms, tutors, 'præpostors,' and fags, and in general all the methods in vogue at Eton. At the end of his régime (1794) the attendance was about 200. James was the first real organizer of Rugby as we find it to-day.

The choice of Thomas Arnold (q.v.) in 1829 as headmaster of Rugby marks the beginning of a new spirit in English education. The aim hitherto had been the inculcation of knowledge with a view to preparation for university examinations. Arnold conceived the idea of education that makes for character. He sagaciously accepted the organization of Rugby as he found it, but he infused new life and light into it. He did not abrogate the liberty of the older boys, but he added to it responsibility by placing the discipline of the school in the hands of the sixth form. The unhappy lot of fags was under his influence considerably ameliorated. Since his death in 1842 the successive masters have with more or less success striven to maintain the high standard set up by Arnold. In 1868 the government of the school was transferred to a board of governors, the board of trustees retaining management of the finances and the appointing of masters. The lower school was established in 1878 for foundationers, Rugby School proper being devoted to the education of non-foundationers. The studies at Rugby are still mainly classical. The modern tendencies are, however, fast making an inroad into the school curriculum. There are 14 competitive scholarships, ranging from £20 to £100 annually. In 1900 Rugby had an attendance specialist, and modern sides' and the army of about 600, distributed among the classical, class. The principal buildings are the Rugby and New Big Schools, built in quadrangles; the chapel, the gymnasium, and the museum. In 1900 there were 9 dormitories. The 'Close' is the printhe most popular game being football. cipal playground and contains about 17 acres, Rugby and a workshop. Two missions, one home and includes also a library, a laboratory, a vivarium, one foreign, are supported by Rugbeians. The Meteor is the principal publication. By far the best known of English public schools, Rugby owes its celebrity in part to the truthful picture of the school life of real boys as drawn by one of her sons, Thomas Hughes, in his classic Tom Brown at Rugby.

RUGE, rooʻge, ARNOLD (1802-80). A German political agitator and miscellaneous writer, born at Bergen, island of Rügen. He studied at Jena and Halle, shared in the student agitations of 1821-24, was imprisoned (1824-30), became privat-docent at Halle (1832), founded the Hallesche Jahrbücher (1837), as an organ of the Young German Hegelians, and, on its suppression by the

Prussian censorship, he went to Paris (1843-45), and later to Switzerland. He then became a bookseller in Leipzig, published a democratic journal, Die Reform, was elected to the Frank fort Parliament (1848), and in the next year he fled to England. He aided Mazzini and Ledru Rollin in organizing the Central European Democratic Committee (1849), and, from 1852, lived in Brighton, teaching and writing. He wrote, among other things, a Manifest an die deutsche Nation (1866), and Geschichte unserer Zeit (1881). In 1877 he was pensioned by the German Government. His autobiography Aus früherer Zeit, appeared in Berlin, 1863-67; his Letters were edited by Nerrlich (ib., 1885-86).

RÜGEN, ru'gen. The largest of the islands of Germany, situated in the Baltic Sea off the coast of Pomerania, from which it is separated by the Strelasund, one mile wide (Map: Germany, E 1). It is 33 miles long from north to south, and 26 miles wide, and has an area of 362 square miles. It is of extremely irregular shape, the northeastern portion being separated from the remainder by a deep and irregular inlet known as the Jasmunder Bodden. It is level in the west and hilly in the east, nearly the whole eastern coast consisting of steep chalk cliffs rising in one place to a height of 528 feet. The scenery is pleasing, and, together with the good sea-bathing, attracts many visitors. The soil is fertile, producing grain and rape-seed; cattle-raising and herring fisheries are also important. Population, in 1900, 46,270. The chief town is Bergen. Rügen was taken possession of by Valdemar I. of Denmark in 1168, and was united with Pomerania in 1325. In 1648 it passed to Sweden, and in 1815 was acquired by Prussia, to which it still belongs.

RU'GENDAS, GEORG PHILIPP (1666-1742). A German battle and military genre painter and engraver, born at Augsburg. He was a pupil of Isaac (or Jacob) Fischer, an historical painter, took Bourguignon, Lembke, and Tempesta for his models, but formed his style more especially through the study of the various phases of the military profession, from real life. He continued his studies for two years in Vienna, and in 1692 under Molinari in Venice, thence went to Rome. During the siege and pillage of Augsburg in 1703 he exposed himself to great danger by drawing, in the midst of the engagements, the scenes around him. The six etchings resulting from this are perhaps the most meritorious part of his work. His oil paintings, spirited in draw ing, but defective in coloring, may best be studied in the Brunswick Gallery, which contains nine battle-pieces by him. Consult the monograph by Count Stillfried (Berlin, 1879).

RUGER, rooʻger, THOMAS HOWARD (1833-). An American soldier, born at Lima, N. Y. He graduated at West Point in 1854, and was assigned to the engineers, but resigned a year later and became a lawyer at Janesville, Wis. On the outbreak of the Civil War he reëntered the service as lieutenant-colonel of the Third Wisconsin Volunteers, and during the first half of the war participated in the campaigns in Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania, becoming brigadier-general of volunteers in November, 1862. In 1864 he commanded a brigade of the Twentieth Corps during the invasion of Georgia, and later commanded a divi

sion of the Twenty-third Corps in the Tennessee campaign against Gen. John B. Hood (q.v.), and for his gallantry at the battle of Franklin received the brevet rank of major-general of volunteers. Later he took part in the operations in North Carolina. After the war he was commissioned colonel of the Thirty-third Infantry, in July, 1866, and in 1871 was appointed superintendent of the United States Military Academy, where he remained until 1876. He was promoted to be brigadier-general in March, 1886, and to be major-general in February, 1895, and was retired from the service in May, 1897.

RUGGLES, SAMUEL BULKLEY (1800-80). An American lawyer, born in Connecticut. He graduated at Yale in 1814, and was admitted to the New York bar in 1821. In 1838 he was elected a member of the State Legislature. In 1839 he was chosen as a canal commissioner, and the following year became president of the canal board, an office which he held again in 1858. He represented the United States in the international monetary conference in Paris, and was a delegate to the statistical conference at The Hague in 1869. As a member of the New York Chamber of Commerce he collected valuable statistics concerning production and transportation.

RUGGLES, rugʻg'lz, TIMOTHY (1711-95). An American jurist and soldier, born at Rochester, Mass. He graduated at Harvard in 1732, studied law, and in time became one of the foremost lawyers of the colony. He was made a judge of the Court of Common Pleas for Worcester County in 1757, and five years later became its Chief Justice. For many years he was a member of the General Court. When the French and Indian War began he entered the army, was second in command at the battle of Lake George in 1755, was made a brigadier-general, and in 1759-60 took part under General Amherst in the conquest of Canada. As a reward for his services he was given a farm by Massachusetts, and later was appointed to the office of surveyor-general of the King's forests. In 1765 he was president of the Stamp Act Congress, but, having refused to transmit to England the addresses and petitions drawn up by that body, he was censured by the Massachusetts General Court and reprimanded by the Speaker. In 1774 he received an appointment as mandamus counselor, and as he expressed his intention to serve, became so unpopular that he was forced to seek safety in Boston. When the British were forced to evacuate that city, he accompanied them, and ultimately settled in Nova Scotia, where he died. Consult: Washburn, Sketches of the Judicial History of Massachusetts from 1630 to the Revolution in 1775 (Boston, 1840); and Paige, History of Hardwick (Boston, 1893).

RUGS (from Swed. rugg, rough tangled hair; probably connected with LGer. rug, OHG. rüh, Ger. rauh, AS. rüh, rūg, Eng. rough, and with Lith, raukas, fold, wrinkle). Floor coverings made in one piece, covering usually only a portion of the floor. A rug may be woven or it may be made from an animal's skin. Oriental rugs are sometimes used for hangings as well as for floor coverings. The ordinary power-loom rugs of Europe and America differ from carpets in their shape and size, rather than in the method of their manufacture. A Smyrna rug is simply a chenille Axminster (see CARPETS), with the wool on both