teen years he spent most of his time in the jungle and on the plains of Bengal. The large amount of map material he collected was used in the preparation of the Bengal Atlas, which appeared in 1779, a work of the first importance for strategical and administrative purposes. His map of Hindustan, accompanied by about 200 pages of letterpress, appeared in 1783, and marked the time when Rennell ceased to be merely a surveyor and map-maker and became a geographer in the more extended sense. Rennell lived for the remainder of his life in London, and for fifty years, from 1780 to 1830, he was one of the leading geographers of Europe, and the great critic of geographical work and elucidator of geographical problems. Comfortably established with his wife and children in London, he began the construction of the first approximately correct map of India, and many years elapsed before it was superseded by the more accurate trigonometrical survey. He then turned his attention to Western Asia between India and the Mediterranean. He had conceived a scheme for a great work on the comparative geography of Western Asia, but he never completely carried it out, his Geography of Herodotus, which formed only a part of the whole project, occupying him for many years. This work has been of permanent value to geographical students.

Rennell's studies of Herodotus made him a

very high authority on all matters relating to African geography, and he became the coadjutor of the African Association when that body in augurated the modern era of the exploration of that continent. His map of Northern Africa, prepared for the use of the association, was the

result of immense research combined with sagacious reasoning. He elucidated the reports of explorers, and his maps illustrated their travels. He worked up, for example, the rough notes of Mungo Park, examined his daily routes with great care, compared them critically with previous work in West Africa, and brought all the materials into harmony as far as possible. He constructed the map of the discoveries of Mungo Park. As a hydrographer, also, Rennell made important advances in the study of winds and currents, and was the founder of that branch of geography which is now called oceanography. Rennell's volume on winds and currents is based upon an enormous mass of material which he collected to illustrate the subjects. The current now known as Rennell's current, a stream in the ocean moving northward athwart the mouth of the English and Irish channels, was revealed by his study of a great number of facts collected by seamen. His wind and current charts, published only after his death, contained a large

amount of information of service to mariners. His body was buried in Westminster Abbey.

RENNES, ren. The capital of the Department of Ille-et-Vilaine, France, at the confluence of the rivers Ille and Vilaine, 155 miles east of Brest by rail (Map: France, E 3). It is divided into the upper or new town and the lower or old town. It has remains of its medieval walls, towers, and gates, beyond which lie extensive suburbs. Bridges unite the two divisions of the town, the older portions of which lie on the left bank of the quay-lined Vilaine. The most noteworthy buildings are the modern cathedral, whose interior is a spacious hall of Grecian architecture, the stately Palais de Justice, the

Hôtel de Ville, the Lycée, the Palais Universitaire with its fine art museum, and the handsome modern university. Tree-lined boulevards, the spacious Champ-de-Mars with a war monument commemorating 1870-71, and the Jardin des Plantes, add to the town's attractions. It carries on an active trade and has manufactures of agricultural implements, stockings, lace, sailcloths, and earthenware. The town is the seat of an archbishopric and of a university, which has an attendance of about 1150. It was almost totally destroyed by a great fire in 1720, and was rebuilt on a modern plan. Rennes is the Celtic Condate, the capital of the Gallic tribe of the Redones, whence the modern name. Under the Romans it was an important station. In the Middle Ages it was the capital of the Duchy of Brittany (q.v.). Population, in 1901, 74,676.

RENNET (from ME. rennen, rinnen, AS. rinnan, yrnan, Goth., OHG. rinnan, Ger. rinnen, to run; connected with Lat. rivus, stream, Skt. ar, to move). A substance obtained from the fourth or digestive stomach of calves living upon milk, and also from the stomachs of puppies and pigs. The active principle is obtained from the folds of the membrane lining the stomach, and is prepared commercially by soaking this lining in warm slightly salted water, filtering the resulting extract, and adding a little salt and salterally used in place of the home-made preparaThese extracts are genpetre to preserve it. tions formerly in use. strength, free from taints, and retain their They are of uniform strength and purity for a considerable time. The active principle, rennin, an enzyme or ferment, has the power of coagulating or curdling the

casein of milk. The extracts also contain more or less pepsin, the digestive ferment of the stomach. The action of rennet is impaired by heat, and the ferment is destroyed by high heat. The principal use of rennet or rennet extract is in making cheese, where it is employed to curdle the milk, and thus form the curd. See CHEESE

MAKING.

RENʼNIE, GEORGE (1791-1866). An English civil engineer. He was born in Surrey, the eldest son of John Rennie (q.v.), and at the age of sixteen entered Edinburgh University. He returned to London in 1811, and began the practical study of engineering under his father. In 1818 he was appointed superintendent of the machinery of the mint, and at the same time aided his father in the planning and designing of several of his later works. After his father's death, in 1821, Rennie entered into partnership with his younger brother, John (afterwards Sir John Rennie), as engineer and machinery con

structor.

Their operations included the construction of bridges, harbors, docks, ship-yards, and dredging machinery, steam factories, both in Great Britain and on the Continent, and the furnishing of engines for warships of England, Russia, France, Italy, Mexico, etc. Rennie in addition was engaged in the drainage of large tracts in the midland counties of England and the construction of several Continental railways. He was greatly interested in the development of the screw propeller, and after building the engines for the Archimedes boat with a novel form of screw, constructed the Dwarf, the first screw vessel in the British Navy. He was the author of various papers published in the Philosophical Transactions.

Brooklyn Bridge (in the Havre Museum), done while he was in New York City in 1887-88. He received a medal of the first class at Munich in 1883 and the Legion of Honor in 1889.

RENOUF, Sir PETER LE PAGE (1822-97). An English Egyptologist, born in the island of Guernsey, August 23, 1822. He received his early education at Elizabeth College and went later to Oxford, where he formed a lasting friendship with the Rev. John Henry, afterwards Cardinal, Newman. He took an active part in the Tractarian controversy, and in 1842 was received into the Roman Catholic Church at Saint Mary's College, Oscott, where he began the study of Oriental languages together with theology and philosophy. In 1846 he undertook the tuition of the young Marquis de Vaulchier, and until 1855 resided on the Continent, where he formed the acquaintance of many of the most distinguished scholars of the time. From 1855 to 1864 he was professor in the Catholic University at Dublin, lecturing at first upon French literature and the history of philosophy, and later upon ancient history and Oriental languages. It was during this time that he took up the study of Egyptian, and he soon became one of the foremost as well as one of the most conscientious and reliable Egyptologists of his day. In 1864 he left the university to accept an appointment from the Government as one of the chief inspectors of schools, a position which he held for over twenty years. He visited Egypt in 1875 and spent some time there studying the monuments. From March, 1886, until the end of 1891 he was keeper of the Egyptian and Assyrian antiquities in the British Museum, and in 1896 he was knighted in recognition of his distinguished scholarship. From 1887 until his death he was president of the Society of Biblical Archæology. He died in London, October 14, 1897. Renouf was a versatile scholar, and in addition to his Egyptological attainments he possessed a knowledge of most of the ancient and modern Semitic, Indo-European, Berber, and Finnic languages. In his later years he also became a student of Chinese. He was a very prolific writer and contributed a large number of valuable articles to Atlantis, Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archæology, Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache, and other periodicals. He also translated a number of Egyptian texts for Records of the Past. In 1879 he delivered the second course of the Hibbert Lectures, and the following year he published his Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion, as Illustrated by the Religion of Ancient Egypt (1880; 2d ed. 1884). Renouf's great work was his masterly translation of the Egyptian Book of the Dead (q.v.), the study of which formed his chief occupation for nearly forty years. The translation, accompanied by a valuable commentary, was published serially in the Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaology (vol. xiv., 1892, et seq.) and was unfinished at his death, but was completed from the author's manuscript notes by E. Naville (q.v.). A biography of Renouf and a full bibliography of his writings are to be found in Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archæology (vol. xix., London,

1897).

RENOUVIER, re-noo'vya', CHARLES BERNARD (1815-). A French philosopher and politician. He became known through his Manuel de

philosophie moderne (1842) and his Manuel de philosophie ancienne (1844). After the Revolution of 1848 he published a Manuel républicain de l'homme et du citoyen (1848), which was condemned for its socialistic propositions. He retired from public life after the coup d'état of 1851. From 1872 until 1900 he was associate editor of La Critique philosophique, and he published Essais de critique générale (1854), Science de morale (1869), and Esquisse d'une classification systématique des doctrines philosophiques (2 vols., 1885).

RENO'VO. A borough in Clinton County, Pennsylvania, 28 miles northwest of Lock Haven, on the Philadelphia and Erie division of the Pennsylvania Railroad (Map: Pennsylvania, D 2). It is of some importance as a summer resort, being situated near the Alleghany Mountains, in a picturesque region. There are valuable deposits of bituminous coal and fire clay, and manufactories of fire brick; shops of the Pennsylvania Railroad are here. Population, in 1900, 4082.

RENSSELAER, ren'se-ler. A city in Rensselaer County, New York, on the Hudson River, directly opposite Albany, with which it is connected by three bridges, and on the New York Central and Hudson River and the Boston and Albany railroads (Map: New York, G 3). It is situated in an agricultural and dairying region, and manufactures felt, leather, ice tools, chains, shirt waists, and lumber products; but is important chiefly as a railroad town, having shops, roundhouses, freight yards, etc. Rensselaer was chartered as a city in 1897, having been known formerly as Greenbush, which was incorporated as a village in 1815. In 1902 the village of Bath, with a population in 1900 of 2504, was annexed to Rensselaer. Population, in 1890, 7301; in 1900, 7466.

RENSSELAER POLYTECHNIC INSTI

TUTE. A school of engineering and science at Troy, New York, founded by Stephen Van Rensselaer in 1824 as Rensselaer School and reorganized in 1850 under the present name on the basis of a general polytechnic institute. It was the first school of science and the first school

of engineering established in any English-speaking country, and has long been famous for its engineering courses. Opportunities for investigation and research are offered by the many well-known engineering works within reach of the school. In 1902 the electrical and chemical laboratories were destroyed by fire, but were rebuilt, and with the other laboratories are equipped with machinery and appliances of the most modern type. The students in 1903 numbered 309 and the faculty 20. The Institute owns valuable collections and a scientific library of 6700 volumes and 3500 pamphlets.

RENT (OF., Fr. rente, It. rendita, income, from ML. rendere, nasalized form of Lat, reddere, to restore, return). In political economy, the term rent, when used without a qualifying phrase, refers to the payment which is made for the use of land. In the payments popularly known as which may be classed as interest on buildings rent are usually included two elements, one of and other improvements, the other as economie rent. The economic rent of any given piece of land is measured by the difference between the prices which its products obtain and the cost of

Assuming the conditions of a new community with an abundance of accessible land, good and bad, it is obvious that so long as the produce of the best land is more than sufficient to satisfy the community's wants there will be no rent. Producers will be on an equality, and if any difference exists between the value of the product and the costs of production in labor and capital, it will be the same for all. As population increases the product of the best grade of lands no longer suffices to satisfy the want for food. Prices of food will rise until it will pay to bring inferior lands under cultivation. Permanent prices will have to be sufficient to cover costs in labor and capital upon these inferior lands. Since the cost of production on the better land does not increase, a surplus value will emerge in the produce of these lands. This surplus value is rent. If the owner of the better land cultivate the ground not in person, but by tenants, this surplus is what the latter can afford to pay the landlord for the use of his land. If the favored producers are themselves cultivators, they receive the rent directly in the increased returns of their husbandry.

This simple illustration suffices to explain the law of rent, which may be briefly stated as follows: Rent of land is the difference between the cost of the product and its value, the latter being determined by the cost of production upon the poorest land cultivated. In an isolated community the increase of population and the resulting pressure upon the food supply must always enhance rent, as cultivation must be extended from better to poorer soils. In other words, the pressure of population upon the means of subsistence creates rent on those lands where the means of subsistence can most easily be produced. Again we may assume all the available land of the community to be in cultivation and yet the pressure upon the means of subsistence increases. Now even if all the land were uniform in quality but deficient in quantity rent must appear. No increase of product can be obtained without application of additional labor and capital to the soil. This will not be so fruitful as the first application, and hence the latter must yield a rent. In this phase the law of rent may be stated as follows: The rent of land is the difference between the value of the product and its costs, value being determined by the costs of production for the product due to the least fruitful increment of capital and labor employed in cultivation. It follows that rent is a result, not a cause of price. This principle was demonstrated by Ricardo and until recent decades was thought to establish a perfectly clear distinction between rent and other economic incomes. The rise of the Austrian school of economists (see POLITICAL ECONOMY) has, however, tended to break down this distinction in incomes. Labor and capital, like land, receive their value from their product. While it is true that no form of goods will long be produced which does not pay the prevailing rates of interest and wages, it is no less true that an agricultural product will not be produced unless it pays the ordinary rate of rent.

One of the most important practical principles that have been deduced from the demonstration of the law of rent is that a tax levied upon rent

merely the capitalization of the rental value, cannot raise the price to the consumer of the product of the land. This principle has served as a basis for the plan of social reform of Henry George. (See SINGLE TAX.) The fact that every increase in population or in capital increases the return to the landlord quite without his own efforts served as an ethical justification for a plan of appropriation to the State of ground rents. Recent economic theory has widely extended the application of the theory of rent. Since the time of Senior (q.v.) the term has been frequently applied to the net income from monopoly advantages, whether natural or legal. Profits (q.v.) are frequently classed as a form of rent; and Clark applies the term to any form of income which may be described differentially. In the language of Marshall, "the rent of land is no unique fact, but simply the chief species of a large genus of economic phenomena; the theory of the rent of land is no isolated economic doctrine, but merely one of the chief applications of a particular corollary from the general theory of demand and supply." The theory of the rent of land occupies a large space in all systematic presentations of political economy. A compact statement is found in Walker, Land and Its Rent (Boston, 1883).

RENT. In its most ancient as well as its modern sense, compensation payable by a tenant to his landlord for the land held of him. Rent has never been an incident of tenure, but even under the feudal system of land-holding and when due from tenant in fee simple to his lord, rent was due only as matter of contract. It was, indeed, the service agreed by the feudal tenant to be performed (servitium redditum), which might or might not include a money payment, and which varied according to the tenure upon which the land was held, according to the custom of the manor of which it formed a part, or according to the will of the parties.

In much the same way the obligation of the modern tenant for life or years to pay rent to his landlord is based entirely on agreement expressed in the lease or implied from the acts of the parties as to the time and manner as well as the duty of payment. This being so, a failure to pay rent does not ordinarily affect the relation of landlord and tenant so as to enable the landlord to enter and terminate the lease, nor can a tenant by terminating the relation of tenure between himself and his landlord (as by assigning his entire estate to a third person) relieve himself of the obligation to pay the rent agreed. Rent is equally independent of any other violations of duty by either party, excepting only the breach of the covenant for quiet enjoyment implied in every letting of lands.

As already indicated, a failure to pay rent does not in and of itself involve a forfeiture of the tenant's estate. The landlord's proper remedy is an action at law for the rent due. At common law, however, he was provided with a more efficacious remedy in the process known as levying a distress. See DISTRESS.

The rents described by Blackstone in his famous chapter on incorporeal hereditaments (Blackstone II. 41-43), as "certain profits issuing yearly out of lands and tenements corporeal." are obviously a very different thing from those which have just been described. The rent here

referred to is a right in the nature of an easement, or more accurately a profit à prendre, in the land of another, and it comes into existence, not by agreement or in connection with a lease but, as such incorporeal rights always do, by grant or prescription. The right to take the rent is a species of real property which may be held, like any other estate, for life or years or in fee, and which is capable of alienation, and, if held in fee, of transmission by inheritance. The common law distinguished three kinds of such rents, viz. rent service, rent charge, and rent seck. The rent service was merely the old feudal rent surviving into a period which had forgotten its origin. It existed only when lands were held by one of another in fee, and where, accordingly, the rent due was in the nature of a feudal service. The rent charge is the rent just described as arising by grant of the owner of the land on which it is charged. The distinguishing characteristic of this was the fact that it was enforceable by distress. The rent seck was merely the rent charge without the power of distress annexed. Of these three forms of rent the rent service is obsolete, excepting, perhaps, in a few manors in England (see QUITRENT); rent charge survives unchanged except where distress has been abolished, and there all rents charged on land by deed or will are properly rents seck. It is to the class of rents charge, rather than of contract rents, that we must refer the so-called fee-farm rents. FEE.

See

RENUNCIATION. In law, the disavowal or abandonment of an official or property right. Of the latter class are the renunciation by an heir, deviser, or legatee of the property, real or personal, to which by operation of law or under the will of his testator he is entitled. Of the former class is the more frequent case of the refusal by an executor, administrator, or trustee of the office conferred upon him. The formality of renunciation is in either case of the simplest character, a letter or other written expression of intention being the usual form. In Scotland the term renunciation is employed to denote the surrender (q.v.) of an estate for life or years to the landlord.

REN/WICK, JAMES (1662-88). A Scottish Covenanter, born at Moniaive, Dumfriesshire. He was a student at Edinburgh University, but received no degree there, because of his refusal to acknowledge Charles II. as head of the Church, and therefore finished his theological education at Groningen, Holland. In 1683 he returned to Scotland and began preaching at conventicles. He was outlawed for his collaboration with Alexander Shields in An Informatory Vindication of the Covenanters (1684). In 1687 he had become the virtual leader of the Cameronians,

who were excluded from the Act of Toleration, and was finally captured and executed at Edinburgh.

RENWICK, JAMES (1818-95). An American architect. He was born in New York and educated at Columbia. College. He constructed the

distributing reservoir of the Croton Aqueduct in New York City and was for some years an architect on the Erie Railroad. Among the buildings designed by him are Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, New York; Saint Patrick's Cathedral, Grace, and Calvary Church, New York; and the Smithsonian Institution and Corcoran Gallery at Washington. He left a valuable art collection to the Metropolitan Museum.

REPAIRS. In the law of real property, such acts of construction and amendment as are necessary to keep the buildings of an estate from of England and America the obligation to repair deterioration and decay. By the common law rests on the tenant in possession, whether his estate be for life or years. It is, in fact, an incident of such a tenancy and flows from the doctrine of waste, and this includes the wholesale restoration of premises destroyed by fire, as well as current repairs called for by ordinary uses or mere lapse of time, excepting where (as now generally in the United States) this harsh rule of the common law has been modified by statute. The obligation to repair does not extend to a tenant at will or at sufferance, nor to a joint tenant or tenant in common (whether in possession of the premises or not), nor generally to a mortgagee in possession.

keep the premises in repair is sometimes varied This common-law obligation of the tenant to by local custom and more frequently by agreement of the parties. See EVICTION; LANDLORD AND TENANT; LEASE; WASTE.

REPARATION (Lat. reparatio, from reparare, to restore, repair, from re-, back again, anew+parare, to prepare). In law, the redress of an injury by making compensation therefor, or by restoring something which has been unlawfully taken from one entitled to its possession. See DAMAGES.

REPEAL (OF. rapeler, Fr. rappeler, to recall, revoke, repeal, from re-, back + OF. apeler, Fr. appeler, to call, appeal, from Lat. appellare, to address, appeal, to call, summon). The obliteration or abrogation of a statute by another act of a legislative body. Where an act declares in positive terms that another shall be abrogated, it is said to be an express repeal, but where a statute contains absolutely inconsistent provisions with a prior one, and does not refer to it directly, it is said to repeal the latter by implication. It is in the latter class of cases that the greatest difficulty arises. The provisions of the subsequent act must be absolutely contrary or repugnant to those of the former, so that it is clear that they must have been intended to supersede the former, in order to work out a repeal by another, and the provisions not thus expressly implication. An act may repeal only portions of repealed will continue in force. The same is true where a subsequent statute is only inconsistent with a former one in some provisions. Where it is desired to alter some of the provisions of an act, it is usually amended, by striking out some part of it and substituting new provisions. An amendment, therefore, is a change or alteration, whereas a repealing act abrogates or wipes out the provisions of the statute to which it applies. Under the common law the subsequent repeal of an express repealing act has the effect of restoring or reviving the statute which had been abrogated by the latter, but this