Vezelay or of Peterborough, Ely, and Durham. Only in a few provinces where early Christian and classic traditions were strong, as in Rome and Tuscany, did the old columnar basilica maintain its sway. Esthetically the Romanesque style impresses by its seriousness of purpose, its massiveness, and its originality. The substitution of vaulting in place of the combustible wooden roof introduced an entirely new structural problem, and the Romanesque attempts at its solution were endlessly varied: domes, round and pointed tunnel vaults, unribbed and ribbed groin-vaults of every conceivable form were used. The architects were seeking for a perfect equilibrium of parts. This was not discovered until the Gothic ribbed vault and flying buttress were evolved in the latter part of the twelfth century.

ITALY. In Italy especially, the diversity of styles during the Romanesque period is extreme. Venice, for example, is predominantly Byzantine, not only in Saint Mark's with its domes and mosaics, and in the churches of Torcello (Cathedral and Santa Fosca) and Murano, but in its private palaces with their stilted arcades, marble façades, and sculptured ornament. Then again, the cosmopolitan culture of the Norman kings of Sicily produced a gorgeous architecture made up of Latin, Greek, and Arabic elements, as in the cathedrals of Cefalù and Monreale, and the Cappella Palatina at Palermo. In Calabria there appears a pure Byzantine style, with tiny domical churches, like those of Greece; in Campania, especially at Ravello and Salerno, Moorish and Byzantine influences sometimes predominate, though we often find a strong Lombard element. Working northward, we now find two main divisions, based on different principles: the classic and the Lombard. The classic school is represented by the Roman provinces and Tuscany, which produced works of great beauty of form and color, but covered with the wooden roof. This school is best represented by the medieval basilicas of Rome itself, and by the cathedrals of Terracina and Cività Castellana. Its simple but majestic columnar interiors with rich mosaic ornament, its symmetrical brick campanili and exquisite architraved porches recall the best early Christian art. Less classic, but even more monumental and gayer in their exteriors, were the Tuscan churches. Here Pisa-Venice's great rival at this time-takes the lead with its cathedral, baptistery, leaning tower, and a host of other buildings, followed by Lucca, with San Frediano, San Giovanni, and San Michele as well as Pistoia, Prato, and other smaller towns. The same use of columns and roof as in Rome is combined with an alternation of black and white marbles borrowed from the East and with interior and exterior open arcades and galleries borrowed from Lombardy, as was also the use of relief sculpture on the façades.

The Tuscan churches, like the Roman and the Lombard, had a single detached bell-tower or campanile, usually to the right of the church. In this Italy differed both from the Orient and from Northern Europe, where the bell-tower or a pair of them was ordinarily an integral part of the church. The Lombard style, the second of the two great schools named above, made frequent use of the groined vault, and secured a sombre impressiveness by the heavy proportions and details that went with vaulting. Externally

the same impression results from the use of plain walls of brick or stone unrelieved by marble. Sant' Ambrogio at Milan and San Michele at Pavia were the earliest examples and furnished the type; the cathedrals and baptisteries of Parma, Cremona, Piacenza, Ferrara, and Modena are all superb structures, unsurpassed by buildings of any age in Italy. In this province the baptisteries are especially numerous and important (e.g. Parma and Cremona). Here also were built the earliest town-halls of the free communes. Hardly less monumental, but with less consistent use of vaulting, are the South Lombard churches of Apulia, where the decoration is richer and more artistic than in Lombardy itself, as at Bitonto, Altamura, and Troja. The portals and wheel windows are the richest and most symmetrical in Italy. Apulia is also rich in churches showing French, Norman, and Byzantine influences. Baptisteries and towers were very few in this province, so that the churches usually stand alone.

FRANCE. It was in France that the Romanesque style, forsaking early Christian and classic traditions, and unaffected by contemporary Oriental art, first developed as an independent style merging into the Gothic. With greater homogeneity than in Italy, it nevertheless displays well-marked local variations or schools, e.g. those of Provence, Auvergne, and Périgord in the south, of Burgundy in the centre, and of the Royal Domain and Normandy in the north. It was in these schools that the successful struggle to create a vaulted style as a substitute for a wooden-roofed style was carried on, leading ultimately to the Gothic-ribbed vault and buttress. The Byzantine domical solution with a single nave was adopted in Aquitaine, especially in Périgord, where Saint Front at Périgueux, with its five domes over a Greek cross, is comparable to Saint Mark's at Venice and the Cathedral of Cahors shows how a single long nave may be covered with a row of domes. This style, at first very plain, became enriched with typical Romanesque detail and ornament through the twelfth century, and is then represented by such masterpieces as the cathedrals of Angoulême and Fontevrault. The other most fruitful early school was that of Auvergne, in which occur the earliest examples of the long choir with side aisles, ambulatory and radiating chapels, later elaborated in the Gothic style. Its masterpiece is the largest remaining Romanesque church in France-Saint Servin at Toulouse, with its imposing central tower, tunnel-vaulted nave, symmetrical composition, and rich details. Tunnel-vaulting and classic traditions are conspicuous in the southernmost or Provençal school. Saint Trophime at Arles and Saint Gilles are celebrated for their richly sculptured portals. Ordinarily the churches were of moderate size, often with but a single nave, as at Avignon, Cavaillon, and Montmajour. Still commoner, however, was the three-aisled type with the side aisle so disposed as to receive the thrust of the central tunnel vault. The difficulty of providing a clearstory, with this arrangement, led to varied expedients to avoid the resulting dark interiors, and stimulated ingenuity in vault-building, by which ultimately clearstory windows were introduced. This school is inferior to that of Auvergne especially in the absence of the triforium to break up the wall surfaces.

It was in Burgundy, however, that the tunnelvaulted, three-aisled basilica was most highly developed by the monastic orders of Cluny and Citeaux; and the spread of these orders popularized throughout Europe the building methods current in Burgundy. The primitive form of this style is given in the great Church of Saint Philibert at Tournus, remarkable for its unique series of tunnel-vaults, built transversely over the nave. Of equal importance was Saint Benoit-sur-Loire, another monastic church of impressive simplicity and size, and finally the most colossal church of medieval Christianity, the Abbey at Cluny (long since demolished), on which all the wealth of perfected Romanesque style was lavished, and whose influence extended over the whole province. The abbey Church of Vezelay is the most perfect remaining example of this influence. Autun is a masterpiece of another sort showing classic traits. Omitting some secondary schools of Middle France, there remain three principal northern schools, Champagne, Ile-de-France, and Normandy. These differed from the more southern schools in their long retention of the wooden roof to cover even their largest structures. The two great churches at Caen, the Abbaye aux Hommes and Abbaye aux Dames, which were the precursors of the early Gothic cathedrals, were at first wooden-roofed (c.1150), their groined vaults being of later date. The Norman scheme of façade, with its two high flanking towers, and the Norman system of groined vaulting, was adopted in the Ile-de-France (as at Saint Denis) and then passed into the early Gothic architecture. To recapitulate, there is in the French Romanesque a remarkable variety of methods and of vaulting, of plan, of lighting, and of external and internal decoration. The monasteries and their churches were then of far greater importance than the cathedrals, and therefore such accessory buildings as cloisters (q.v.) and chapter-houses (q.v.) form important classes. Porches (q.v.) and towers (q.v.) on the church façades were also of varied design.

GERMANY. To the political leadership of the German emperors of the tenth and eleventh centuries-the Othos and Henrys-corresponds an earlier and larger architectural activity than elsewhere in Europe. The great cathedrals of Worms, Mainz, Speyer, and Bonn show how the bishops surpassed the monasteries at a time when in France the monasteries were supreme and the cathedrals insignificant. At the same time, the wealth of monastic buildings was increased in the twelfth century by the advent of the Cistercian monks, who were great builders. The three earliest schools were the Rhenish, the Saxon, and the Bavarian-Swabian; while there were secondary offshoots in Westphalia, Hesse, the Main region, and in Alsace. While buildings were planned on a large scale, there was no attempt at solving the vaulting problem. Not a church was vaulted during the eleventh century, and during the twelfth few outside of the Rhenish school. The great Rhenish cathedrals as they now stand were mostly planned for wooden roofs and vaulted at a later date. First Speyer (c.1100), then Mainz (c.1125) were covered with square groin-vaults, the only kind that became popular in Germany, and these were followed by the great Abbey of Laach, with its oblong groinvaults. There is. therefore, less difference between the early Christian basilicas and the Ro

manesque churches in Germany than in France. Some of the earliest examples are at Gernrode, Quedlinburg, Reichenau, Regensburg (Sankt Emmeran), Hildesheim (Sankt Michael). Cologne had the largest number of important churchessuch as Saint Pantaleon, Santa Maria in Capitolio, the Apostles, Sankt Martin-and most of them are vaulted. Their immense central domes, with large semi-domes opening out as apses on three sides, give their interiors greater unity and grandeur than any other type in Germany. German churches have many peculiarities not seen elsewhere; for example, double choirs and transepts, one at each end, are quite common (cathedrals of Worms and Mainz, Abbey of Laach, etc.). So also is the alternation of columns and piers between nave and aisle, e.g. Gernrode and Sankt Godehard, Hildesheim. Round or octagonal towers are grouped around choirs and transepts in a way that greatly adds to the richness and symmetry of the exterior, beside the larger towers at the façade and over the intersection. No other country has so symmetrical a composition of exteriors. This is carried to great perfection in the Cathedral of Bonn. On the other hand, the interiors are bare and heavy, and there is no wealth of decorative and figured sculpture such as we find in France. Columnar basilicas were built, as at Limburg and Hersfeld, where was the most important, Hirsau, and many other places. But the pier-basilica was the commoner type. The great similarity to the Lombard churches in the exterior decoration of lines of false arcades and small open galleries proves that there was a close contact between these schools and the Rhenish, though the German is superior in beauty and picturesqueness. Besides the churches and monasteries there is a group of civil structures, the like of which was unknown in the rest of Europe; namely, the Imperial and royal palaces. Starting with the type developed by Charlemagne at Aix-la-Chapelle, there follow the palace of Henry III. at Goslar, that of Henry the Lion at Brunswick, and that of Louis III. of Thuringia at the Wartburg, best known of all.

ENGLAND. The extant architecture of Christian England antedating the Norman Conquest is very scanty. It is called Anglo-Saxon, because developed under the Saxon rulers between the seventh and eleventh centuries. The great majority of both religious and civil buildings were of wood. Even the stone cathedrals of later date (tenth to eleventh century) were small and were rebuilt by the Normans shortly after the Conquest. The workmanship was primitive, the details poor, as in the case of the Tower at Earl's Barton, where the colonnettes are like turned work, and the corner quoining suggests bands of metal (Deerhurst, Sompting, etc.). The Norman style was introduced from Normandy even before the Conquest, under Edward the Confessor; but the earlier Norman work, before 1125, was poor, with wide-jointed masonry and details executed with the axe. The chapel of the London Tower, the crypts and the transepts of Winchester Cathedral, and parts of Gloucester, Durham, Canterbury, and Norwich cathedrals show the primitive style, which was inferior to that in Normandy itself. About 1120 was begun a series of superb Norman structures, and by 1200 the main portions of Ely, Durham, Peterborough, Norwich, Rochester, Gloucester, Saint Albans, Carlisle, and other cathedrals were built, as well as a great

number of monasteries-especially Cistercian such as Rievaulx Fountains, Kirkstall, Waltham, Romsey, and Malmsbury. The characteristics of this style are heavy walls and piers, rich details, length and narrowness of plan, inability to vault wide spaces, lack of figured sculpture, constant use of geometric and schematic ornament, and use of both round and grouped piers. The portals are especially rich and deeply recessed, and their most characteristic ornaments are in the zigzag and beak molding. The naves are all covered with wooden roofs, but the aisles are often groinvaulted. Especial prominence was given to the triforia, which form lofty galleries over the aisles. Few of the original façades remain for comparison with contemporary Continental examples. Of all phases of the Romanesque the Norman is the heaviest, makes the least use of vaulting (except the Tuscan), and is the least well composed, though often impressive. Toward the close of the twelfth century the heaviness diminishes, and certain parts of Ely and Norwich are charmingly symmetrical.

SPAIN. The Spanish Romanesque style commenced early in the ninth century under King Alfonso II. of Asturias, with the renewed life of Christian Spain. The new capital, Oviedo (San Tirso, San Julian), and the neighboring Naranco (Santa Maria, San Miguel) show a mixture of early Christian and Byzantine influences (c.800-850), as do later churches at Valdedios, Priesca, and Barcelona. Moorish influence also becomes prominent. With the eleventh century the south of France inspires the Spanish school in its further revival. The increased prosperity of the Christian cities of Spain, to many of which French bishops were appointed, caused a revival in cathedral architecture, which adopted the vault in all its forms, the tunneled being used ordinarily for the nave, the groined for the aisles. San Isidoro at Leon, the old Cathedral of Salamanca, that of Zamora, the church at Toro, and San Iago at Compostella are characteristic examples, Salamanca being the earliest and San Iago the most consummate work. These Spanish churches are grandiose and equal to the foremost French buildings, even surpassing them in some features, such as the effective dome over the intersection of Compostella. Examples of tunnel-vaulted hall-churches are at Gerona, Huesca, and Segovia, similar to those of Provence and Languedoc. The most important groinvaulted churches are Santa Maria at Tudela and the cathedrals of Tarragona and Lérida, remarkable for unity of plan, solidity of construction, and beauty of detail. They bear great similarity to the school of Anjou. San Vicente at Avila has the most interesting figured sculptures on its façade and an exceptionally beautiful triforium gallery. The Spanish school reaches its most glorious period when the time approaches, toward 1200, for France to give her the Gothic as she had the Romanesque.

SCULPTURE.

In the minor forms of sculpture, Byzantine and early Christian models were generally followed during the Romanesque epoch (see BYZANTINE ART), the awakening of monumental sculpture having been due to the demand for architectural decoration.

FRANCE. Such was particularly the case during the Carolingian revival in France and Germany. In the south of France, however, stone

sculpture on a larger scale was used in connection with church architecture. The façades were crowded with statues, often representing a larger composition; statues even took the place of columns in the cloisters. Technically inferior to those of the succeeding Gothic period, they were more characteristic and individual. The school of Provence was dignified and quiet in character, concealing technical deficiencies by rich decoration; that of Burgundy, more finished in technique, more fanciful and inventive, but grotesque and dramatic; that of Toulouse, more finished and studied. A curious combination of Carolingian and Byzantine influence is shown by the school which in the first half of the twelfth century created the fine façade of Angoulême, the entire sculptures of which form one composition, a "Last Judgment," and the rich portal of Cahors.

GERMANY. During the ninth century carving in ivory, after early Christian and Byzantine models, was extensively practiced. An important centre was the Monastery of Saint Gall, where Tutilo was the chief master. Foreign influence rather increased under the Othos, being promoted by their frequent expeditions to Rome, and the marriage of Otho III. with the Byzantine Princess Theophano. Though ruder than their models, the native workmen display more naturalism and individuality. Monumental sculpture did not arise until the eleventh century, through the instrumentality of Bishop Bernward of Hildesheim. Impressed by the columns of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius at Rome, he erected one of his own at Hildesheim, besides furnishing his own cathedral with bronze doors. His school was especially occupied with articles of church furniture, and invented bronze sepulchral slabs. Among its most important productions are the portals of the cathedrals at Augsburg, Verona, and Gnesen, the baptismal font of Merseburg, and especially the beautiful gold altar front which Henry II. presented to the cathedral at Basel.

ITALY. During the twelfth century, in connection with façade decoration, a species of Romanesque sculpture originated in Lombardy and Tuscany, which during the thirteenth century was applied to interior decoration as well. Its technique was rude, the figures being short and coarse, the expression and dramatic action childish, the draperies very primitive. The best work of this school is found in Lombardy, especially in the cathedrals of Modena and Ferrara, in Saint Zeno, and the Cathedral at Verona. During the later twelfth century considerable progress was made by Benedetto Antelami, whose sculptures in the Cathedral of Parma and the neighboring Borgo San Donino show nature study and a sense of form and motion. At Venice Byzantine influence prevailed, but the sculptures of the main portal of Saint Mark, and, in the interior, the angels under the cupola are Romanesque in character. The Tuscan sculptures are Niccola Pisano in the thirteenth century is of more primitive in character; the revival under sufficient importance for general development to merit treatment in the article SCULPTURE.

PAINTING.

GERMANY. Mural painting was extensively practiced under the patronage of Charles the Great, but of the decorations which we know existed in the royal palace and in the churches no

examples survive. Contemporary miniatures, however, which correspond in the main with these frescoes, reveal an art still following early Christian traditions in general plan, but possessing a highly developed system of ornament, Germanic in character. Under the successors of Charles painting declined, but with the development of Romanesque architecture it found increased employment, as early as the ninth century, on the large wall surfaces of most German churches. These paintings are executed with rapid technique, and are decorative in color and design, the background being generally blue, the colors light, and the halos of saints and borders of costumes laid over with gold. Though in ferior to contemporary Byzantine art in technique, they contain elements which it lacks life, character, and action. The oldest examples are in the Church of Oberzell in the island of Reichenau (tenth century); of better quality are, among others, the paintings in the lower Church of Schwarzrheindorf (twelfth), and in the cathedrals of Brunswick and of Gurk in Carinthia (early thirteenth). Panel painting was also practiced, especially upon the ceilings of flatroofed basilicas, of which the best example is that of Saint Michael's at Hildesheim (after 1186). Smaller panels upon gold backgrounds were also used, at first as the antependia of altars.

FRANCE AND ITALY. Romanesque wall paintings in France are not so common, the most important being in the central provinces-in the chapel at Liget (Indre-et-Loire), in Saint Jean at Poitiers, and Saint Savin at Poitou-all dating from the twelfth century. In Italy painting lagged far behind, being purely mechanical, and for the most part under Byzantine influence. Roman examples of the period are excessively rude, while the frescoes at Sant' Angelo in Formis at Capua, like others in Southern Italy, were probably executed by native artists under Greek influence. In the mosaics of the period Italian pictorial art found its best expression, especially in those at Venice and in Sicily. (See MOSAIC.) They, as well as other paintings, were dominated by Byzantium, which throughout the epoch also influenced painting in France, and to a less extent in Germany.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. For the Italian Romanesque see: Mothes, Die Baukunst des Mittelalters in Italien (Jena, 1884); Dartin, Etude sur l'architecture lombarde (Paris, 1865); Rohault de Fleury, Les monuments de Pise au moyen-âge (ib., 1866); Cummings, History of Architecture in Italy (Boston, 1901). FRANCE: Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire raisonné de l'architecture du XIème au XVIème siècle (10 vols., Paris, 1875); also Verneilt, L'architecture byzantine en France (ib., 1851); Révoil, L'architecture romane du midi de la France (ib., 1867-73); Ruprich-Robert, L'architecture normande aux XIème et XIIème siècles (ib., 1884). GERMANY: Otte, Geschichte der romanischen Baukunst in Deutschland (Leipzig, 1874); also Förster, Denkmäler deutscher Baukunst (12 vols., ib., 1855-69); Dohme, Geschichte der deutschen Baukunst (Berlin, 1887); Hartung, Motive der mittelalterlichen Baukunst in Deutschland (ib., 1896 et seq.), with photographic plates. ENGLAND: Parker, Introduction to Gothic Architecture (London, 1881); also Gilbert Scott, Lectures on Medieval Architecture (ib., 1879); Ruprich-Robert (see above

under FRANCE); Bell's series of monographs on English Cathedrals (ib., 1896 et seq.). SPAIN: Street, Gothic Architecture in Spain (London, 1865); for plates, Caveda, Geschichte der Baukunst in Spanien, trans. (Stuttgart, 1858); Uhde, Baudenkmäler in Spanien und Portugal (Berlin, 1889-93); and the Monumentos Arquitectónicos España (Madrid, 1859-79). For. Sculpture and Painting, consult the authorities referred to under GOTHIC ART.

ROMANINO, rõ’må-nẽnô, GIROLAMO (14851566). An Italian painter of the Venetian school, born in Brescia. He was probably a pupil of Feramola, or Chiverchio, and is little known outside Italy. He painted chiefly in his native city, and most of his work is to be found there and He was in the surrounding country. a fine colorist, with peculiar skill and charm in the use of light and shade, but was uneven in his treatment. His works include a large "Madonna," in the Doria Gallery at Rome (attributed to him by Morelli); "Nativity" (1525), in the National Gallery, London; a "Madonna and Saints" (1513), in the Padua Gallery; and a "Last Supper," in the same place. He also left a few notable portraits.

ROMAN LAW. See CIVIL LAW.

ROMANOFF, rô-mäʼnof. The Imperial House of Russia. It first appears in Russia in the fourteenth century when Andrew Kobyla came from Prussia to Moscow (1341) and entered the service of the Grand Duke Simeon. The boyar Roman Yurievitch, the fifth in direct descent from Andrew, died in 1543, leaving a son and a daughter, the latter of whom became Czarina by her marriage with Ivan the Terrible (1547). The son, Nikita, was one of the regency during the minority of Feodor I., and his eldest son, Feodor, under the name of Philaret, was elevated to the rank of Archimandrite and Metropolitan of Rostov during the reign of the false Demetrius (1605-06). He refused to recognize the Polish Prince Ladislas as Czar of Russia in 1612, and for this the Poles took him with them on their retirement from Moscow in face of the nationalist rising, and held him captive for nine years. In February, 1613, the Russian nobles and clergy chose as their ruler Michael Feodorovitch Romanoff, the son of the imprisoned Metropolitan, and the representative, through his grandmother, of the royal House of Rurik. He was succeeded by Alexis was his eldest son, Alexis (1645-76). twice married, and left by his first wife two sons, Feodor and Ivan, and several daughters, and by his second wife one son, Peter. His eldest son, Feodor (1672-82), died without issue, and was succeeded by his half-brother, Peter the Great, with whom Ivan was associated until 1689. Peter was twice married; by his first marriage he had a son, Alexis, who died in his father's lifetime, leaving one son, Peter. Peter the Great was succeeded by his wife, Catharine I. (q.v.), by whom he had two daughters, Anna and Elizabeth. Catharine I. (1725-27) left the throne to the son of Alexis, Peter II. (1727-30), the last of the male line of Romanoff; and on his death without heirs the succession reverted to the female line, the daughter of Ivan, Peter the Great's halfbrother, Anna Ivanovna, being placed upon the throne (1730-40). She was succeeded by her infant grand-nephew, Ivan IV. (1740-41). A

revolution drove Ivan's family from the throne, of which the cadet female line in the person of Elizabeth (1741-62), the daughter of Peter the Great and Catharine, now obtained possession. On her death her nephew, Peter, the son of her elder sister Anna Petrovna, who had married the Duke of Holstein-Gottorp (belonging to a cadet line of the family of Oldenburg), mounted the throne as Peter III. (1762). He was dethroned and succeeded by his wife, the Princess Sophia Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst, who reigned from 1762 to 1796 as Catharine II. She was succeeded by Paul I., her only son by Peter III. Paul (1796-1801) perished by assassination, leaving several sons, the eldest of whom was Alexander I. Alexander (1801-25) left no heir, and the crown at his death devolved by right upon his next brother, Constantine. Constantine, however, in compliance with the wish of Alexander, had previously relinquished his claims to the supreme power, and the third brother, Nicholas I., ascended the throne. Nicholas (1825-55) was succeeded by his son, Alexander II. (1855-81). Alexander II. was assassinated in 1881, and his son, Alexander III., succeeded him, to be followed in 1894 by his son, Nicholas II. Constant intermarriages with German princely houses have made the Romanoff strain of to-day far more German than Russian. Consult Edwards, The Romanoffs: Tsars of Moscow and Emperors of Russia (London, 1890).

ROMAN RELIGION. The attitude of the Romans toward their gods necessarily altered much with the numerous changes which accompanied the development of the little settlement on the Palatine into the mistress of the world. Yet the conservative nature of the Romans led to the preservation of many ancient rites, long after their origin had been forgotten and the ancient beliefs had passed away. Here, however, we are concerned less with this development than with a statement of the various elements which appear in the religion as recognized by the State, expressive of the official attitude toward the gods at the time of their adoption, and even when faith had failed, continued as essential parts of the governmental system. Such a statement is rendered extremely difficult by the absence of any natural development along discernible lines from primitive forms. The original religion of the early Romans has been so overlaid and transformed by the accretions of later times, and in particular by the assimilation of the whole structure of Greek mythology, that any summary reconstruction must give much that is rather probable than certain. Unfortunately, the most extensive al terations were already accomplished long before the Roman literary tradition began, and though such writers as Varro and Verrius Flaccus had many sources from which to draw, the origins were in most cases unknown to them, while Ovid in his Fasti is obviously strongly influenced by his Alexandrian models, and has frequently transformed Greek myths to fill the gaps caused by the lack of such stories in Roman tradition. The fundamental basis for the study of the early Roman religion is found in the Calendars or Fasti, of which some thirty are known, only one of which (the Fasti Maffeiani) is nearly perfect. All can be dated between B.C. 31 and A.D. 46 and are the result of the revision of the calendar by Julius Cæsar. These documents, however, are

plainly composed of two elements, distinguished by the size of the letters, and it can scarcely be doubted that the large capitals represent the official pre-Julian Calendar, as published, we are told, for the first time in B.C. 304, to make known the days when business could be legally transacted. The names and days of 45 public festivals (feriæ publica) of fixed dates were indicated. This calendar is supplemented by the literary tradition, which largely rests on the lost works of the great Roman antiquaries, and in the use of which it is necessary to distinguish sharply between the statements as to actual religious observances and the deductions or explanations evolved by the writers themselves.

The Roman ritual clearly distinguishes two classes of gods, the di indigetes and the di novensides (or novensiles). The latter were the new introductions, and in fact we find that all divinities whose cults were introduced in historical times were reckoned among them. It seems reasonable to see in the Indigetes the original gods of the Roman State, and their names and nature are indicated by the priests of the first class, and the fixed festivals of the Calendar, supplemented by other notices; for though the Calendar was not published until B.C. 304, it had long been in existence as part of the secret knowledge of the pontiffs, and there is good reason for believing that it goes back to an early stage in the regal period. This analysis yields a list of over 30 names honored with special festivals or special priests, and showing on the whole a well-defined field of activity, which is appropriate to a distinct type of community. Moreover, there is a strong tendency to incorporate in a pair of male and female divinities either the same function or two complementary fields of activity. So we have Jouis and Jouino (Juno), Faunus and Fauna, Janus and Vesta, etc. In most cases the female divinities have no independent cult and gradually fade away. Vesta, of course, is a marked exception, and Juno an apparent one, though here the later prominence of the goddess is due to the independent development of foreign elements. In addition to these gods, who seem to have attained a special prominence, there is evidence that the early Roman religion worshiped a host of 'specialist gods,' as they have well been termed. Fragments of old ritual accompanying various acts, such as plowing or sowing, show that at every stage of the operation a separate deity was invoked, whose name is regularly derived from the verb for the operation. Such divinities also may well be grouped under the general term of attendant or auxiliary gods, whom we find invoked along with greater deities. At the head of this early pantheon stand five names: Janus, Jove, Mars, Quirinus, and Vesta, of whom the second, third, and fourth form an ancient triad, while their special priests are the three greater Flamens, Dialis, Martialis, Quirinalis, and the first and fifth are said to be the proper gods to begin and end any invocation of a number of divinities; and a similar position, before and after the three Flamens, is held by representative priests, the Rex sacrorum and the Pontifex maximus. The Indigetes and their festivals show that we are dealing with an agricultural community, but also one fond of fighting and much engaged in war. The gods represent distinctly the practical needs of daily life, as felt by the Roman community to which