STONE OR ROCK CRUSHERS are used to break stone into small sizes for macadam or the upper portion of telford roads and for use in preparing concrete. (See GRINDING AND CRUSHING MACHINERY.) Screens are for separating broken stone into various sizes. (See ORE-DRESSING.) Further operations connected with getting out stone for road work are treated under QUARRYING. Stone-spreaders are used to distribute broken stone in layers of regular thickness on road surfaces. The machine consists of a wagon, on which is mounted a box whose forward end may be raised to give the bottom any desired slope, and of a trailing box reaching to the ground, having a scraper attached to its bottom By adjusting this scraper the depth of the stone may be regulated at will.

and rear.

SPRINKLERS are used to moisten earth and stone used in road construction, and to lay the dust on completed streets. Their most common form is a cylindrical tank, mounted on four wheels, and with the sprinkler proper attached to the rear of the wagon. The sprinkler is a perforated tube, or tubes, adjusted to throw the water out in a spray, or shower, at the rear and sides. Sometimes special street railway cars are equipped with sprinklers, for watering the portion of the streets between and for a little space each side of the tracks. About 1895 a street-car sprinkler was introduced which waters a half of the full width of the street at a time, by means of a swinging arm attached to the side of the car. SCRAPERS FOR CLEANING STREETS are employed to remove stiff mud from roads and streets, and particularly from broken-stone roads. They consist of a series of steel or iror teeth, or long curved blades 3 to 5 inches wide, attached to a framework in such a manner that they will yield to and pass over irregularities in road and street surfaces without tearing up the stone or other material. They pile up the mud at one side.

STREET SWEEPERS of many types are employed to collect street dust and dirt for removal. Most of them consist of a revolving broom, mounted diagonally beneath and at the rear of a fourwheeled truck. The ordinary sweepers throw the dirt out to one side, in a continuous heap or row. In recent years various pick-up sweepers have been invented and to a rather limited extent introduced. Most of them throw the dirt on to a conveyor actuated by the revolutions of the axis of the wagon, and one type picks up the dirt by means of an exhaust fan, driven by an engine mounted on the machine. Nearly all the sweeping machines are drawn by horses, including the one just described, but toward the close of the nineteenth century the introduction of self-propelled sweepers was begun.

SCARIFIERS, for loosening the surface of macadamized roads prior to re-surfacing, are used quite extensively in England. They consist of teeth, tines, or drills, attached to a special machine or to a road roller in such a way as to tear up the surface to a slight depth, by actions similar to plowing, drilling, or hammer blows, according to the machine. In the United States the same end is attained by fastening spikes to steam road rollers, or by means of specially shaped plows.

The use of broken stone for road surfaces depends very largely upon the development and use of two of the classes of machinery described in this article, road rollers and stone crushers. The first practical road roller was made in France, in

Some

1787, by M. de Cessart, Inspector-General of Bridges and Roads. It was made of cast iron, was three feet in diameter and eight feet wide. In 1817 a road roller was patented in England by Philip H. Clay, and in 1825 another English patent on a road roller was granted to John Biddle. Various writers place the beginnings of the continuous use of road rollers in both France and England during the period 1830-40. credit the French engineers with being pioneers in this respect, in 1820. Steam road rollers, which have now largely replaced horse rollers where the use of the former is feasible, were first patented in France early in 1859, by Louis Lemoine, of Bordeaux. A roller weighing ten long tons (22,400 pounds) was immediately built. It was used in Bordeaux, and in 1860 it was also used in Paris. In 1863 W. Clark, of Calcutta, India, and W. F. Batho, of Birmingham, England, patented a steam road roller, and in 1864 a machine built after their patent was shipped from Birmingham to Calcutta. Several other rollers of this type followed in England, the most successful of which, judging from its subsequent wide adoption, was that of Aveling and Porter, of Rochester, England. This firm seems to have combined, in 1865, a road traction engine with rollers, substituting the latter, on very broad wheels, for the ordinary wheels of the engine. In 1867 the same firm made a 30-ton (67,200 pounds) roller for Liverpool, a weight which is now considered excessive. Since 1880 several American steam rollers have been introduced.

The first stone-crushing machine was invented by Eli Whitney Blake (q.v.), of Connecticut, in 1852-57. It was introduced in England in 1860 and has since been used, with or without modifications, all over the world. It was a jaw crusher. Other types of crushers have been introduced since then, but few, if any, have been so extensively used. See GRINDING AND CRUSHING MACHINERY; ORE-DRESSING; PAVEMENTS; QUARRY, QUARRYING; and ROAD. Consult: Byrne, Highway Construction (New York and London, 1900); and Aitken, Roadmaking and Maintenance (London and Philadelphia, 1900).

ROAD-RUNNER. A curious and interesting ground-cuckoo (Geococcyx Californianus) of the Southwestern United States, also called 'chaparral-cock,' 'snake-killer,' and 'paisano.' It is nearly two feet long, of which the tail is about one-half. The plumage is bronzy or coppery green, changing to dark steel blue on the head, everywhere except on the rump streaked with white or tawny; under parts soiled whitish, streaked with black on the throat, breast, and sides. The road-runner is notable for its swiftness of foot, for, aided by its wings, it is said to equal the speed of a horse. It is almost omnivorous, but reptiles and mollusks form a large part of its diet. The nest is a flimsy structure of twigs in a bush, and the white eggs are 6 to 9 in number. Like other cuckoos, the incubation begins as soon as one egg is laid, so that fresh eggs and young birds may be found in the same nest. It is said that road-runners can be domesticated, and then make very interesting pets. Another species (Geococcyx affinis) inhabits Southern Mexico and Guatemala. . Consult Cooper, Birds of California (San Francisco, 1870). See Plate of CUCKOOS.

ROADS AND RAILROADS, MILITARY. Military, roads are of two general classes:

First, those incidental to the advance of civilization and the development of a new country; as, for example, in the case of the many roads constructed by army officers during the develop ment of the western and central portion of the United States, and such as are now being constructed in places in the Philippines. These roads are simply such modifications of ordinary country and macadamized roads as seem best to suit the purposes in hand. Frequently their main object is to keep up a line of communication for the supply of permanent garrisons in time of peace. The second class comprises new roads and repairs to existing roads incident to the active operations of an army. These are sometimes short pieces of road built to furnish communication to and between different parts of camps and fighting lines where they are used for a period extending from several days to months, and sometimes roads necessary for the movement of an army and used perhaps but once. There are many excellent examples of work of this kind by the United States Army in the Civil War. Some of the commanding generals organized pioneer companies in each regiment whose special duty it was to keep the roads and bridges in proper shape for the movement of the army. The work consisted generally in such repairs to existing dirt roads as would make them capable of standing the passage of a large body of troops with its trains. It will readily be seen that in such cases makeshift methods were followed that would not be tolerated under other circum

stances. Frequently tolerable results were se cured by placing on the roads brush, cornstalks, and similar material which were bound together sufficiently to permit of temporary use, but which eventually probably left the road in as bad if not worse condition than before they were used. A favorite method, where applicable, was to corduroy the road. This was done if timber were accessible by cutting down trees and saplings, laying a line of logs parallel to the axis of the road and covering them with small saplings placed across the road. These were fastened down, and, if time afforded, were smoothed on top or covered with dirt. Many modifications of this method have been used. Instead of saplings, brush is sometimes bound together in bundles and used similarly.

Where sawed timber could be quickly and easily procured, roads have been planked in the same manner. An enormous quantity of this class of work was done by Sherman's army in marching northward from Savannah in the Civil War. It is evident that the method of repair of a road under such circumstances must depend almost entirely on the material at hand. It is usually out of the question to metal, or put stone on the road, as is done in macadamized roads for regular use. Still gravel is sometimes at hand and can be used for the purpose. Where time affords, the roads should always be carefully constructed according to approved methods. (See ROAD.) In view of the temporary character of military roads, greater slopes are permissible than in roads to be used for longer periods. It is usually considered admissible to increase the length of the road from 15 to 25 feet for the purpose of saving a foot of vertical height. Rarely less than 8 feet width should be given. If the road is not made wide enough to permit the passage of vehicles at all points, turnouts for this

purpose should be established at convenient intervals.

The longer movements of armies are made by rail or steamboat and in the early stages of war, during the mobilization of the army and the forwarding of its equipment and supplies, the railroad occupies a position of prime importance. In the wars of the future it will, of necessity, play a very important part in all operations, whether offensive or defensive. The objective railroad points are usually the large railroad centres, junctions, etc., the great objective point being the frontier, for throughout Continental Europe railroads are built as much for strategical reasons as for purely commercial purposes, so that their general direction is toward the frontiers, fortified places, magazines, general supply stations, and important points of rendezvous. The military powers of Europe include the personnel of railroads in their national military scheme of defense, so that on the call for mobilization the railroad employee at once becomes a component part of the military forces. So far as possible in a country like the United States, the operation is kept in the hands of the officers and employees of the road. During the Civil War the repairs made to roads by the military authorities became a matter of great importance, so much so that special construction corps were organized for the maintenance of certain pieces of roads. most important railroads-those known to carry the principal supplies for the Northern Armywere frequently attacked and damaged in many places. Systematic provision was made for the material most likely to be used. The maintenance of the road proper, excepting at bridges, was of course simple. The difficulty experienced with bridges is referred to under the head of BRIDGES AND DOCKS, MILITARY.

The

ROAN ANTELOPE. One of the largest and finest antelopes of Central Africa (Hippotragus equinus), related to the oryx, and called 'bastard gemsbok' by the Boers. It stands more than four and a half feet high at the withers, and varies from bright roan-color to various tints of gray or brown, with the face dark brown, broken by a broad white streak in front of each eye, and a white nose. The horns of the bucks are massive, heavily ringed, and sweep backward in a scimitar-like curve which may measure from 33 to 42 inches. This species, though widely distributed, was never very numerous, nor inclined to gather into large herds. Consult authorities cited under ANTELOPE. See Plate of ANTELOPES.

ROANNE, ro'ån'. The capital of an arrondissement in the Department of Loire, France, on the left bank of the Loire, which is here navigable, 42 miles northwest of Lyons by rail (Map: France, L 5). Its streets are wide, and its houses handsome. The chief structures are the bridge over the Loire, the public library, and the college buildings. Roanne manufactures muslins, calicoes, and woolen and other fabrics. Ship-building is carried on. It has numerous Gallo-Roman remains. Population, in 1901, 34,

901.

ROANOKE, rō'a-nōk'. A river formed in southern Virginia by the union of the Dan and the Staunton, which rise in the Blue Ridge (Map: Virginia, F 5). It flows in a winding southeast course of 250 miles through a fertile and picturesque valley in northeastern North

Carolina, and empties into Albemarle Sound. Its length, including the Staunton, is 450 miles, and it is navigable for steamers 150 miles to Weldon. ROANOKE. A city in Roanoke County, Va., 56 miles west of Lynchburg; on the Roanoke River, and on the Norfolk and Western Railroad (Map: Virginia, D 4). It is picturesquely situated in the vicinity of the Blue Ridge Mountains, and has the Virginia College (female), Rebekah Sanitarium, and law and public libraries. Hollins Institute, a large women's college under Baptist control, is six miles distant to the north. Roanoke is mainly interested in railroading, having extensive construction and repair shops of the Norfolk and Western Railroad. Industrially, the city ranks sixth in the State, the value of its products in the census year of 1900 having been $5,710,000. The most important manufactures are cars, locomotives, flouring and grist mill products, bridges, hydraulic engines, agricultural implements, lumber, brick, cigars and tobacco. The government is vested in a mayor, chosen biennially, and a unicameral council. In 1880 Roanoke, then called the town of Big Lick, had a population of only 639. In 1884 it was chartered as a city under its present name. Population, in 1890, 16,159; in 1900, 21,495.

ROANOKE COLLEGE. A coeducational college at Salem, Va., incorporated in 1853 as successor to the Virginia Institute. It remained open during the war, though without endow ment, and has since had a rapid development. In addition to the collegiate department, with partially elective courses, leading to the degree of B.A., partial, preparatory, and commercial courses are offered. The attendance in 1903 was 164, with a faculty of 11 instructors. The library contained 22,000 volumes. The endowment was $60,000, the income $14,000, and the value of the grounds and four buildings was $100,000. ROANOKE ISLAND. An island off the coast of North Carolina, forming part of Dare County and separated from the mainland by Croatan Sound. It is noted as the site selected by Sir Walter Ralegh (q.v.) in his attempt at colonization in 1585-87. On February 8, 1862, a Union force under General Burnside captured the Confederate garrison.

Α

ROARING (laryngismus paralyticus). disease of the horse, usually caused by the pressure of an inflamed or hypertrophied bronchial gland which interferes with the proper functions of the left recurrent larnygeal nerve. In the case of genuine 'roaring' medical treatment is of no avail, but in the earlier stages of the disease a course of iodide of potassium is strongly advocated where the cause of the trouble is to be attributed to disease of the lymphatic glands.

ROARING BUCKIE. The name among British people, especially in Scotland, for the local species of Fusus, a large spiral (conch) shell which, when held to the ear, furnishes a muffled roaring sound which children are told is the sound of the sea in which the creature lived. Really it is the audible reverberation of the otherwise inaudible sound of the rushing of the blood in the internal ear.

ROASTING (in metallurgy). See COPPER. ROB'ALO (Sp., róbalo, Catalan llobarro, name for the European bass, probably from Lat. labrus, labros, from Gk. λáßpag, labrax, sea-wolf, from

λáßpos, labros, furious, fierce, greedy). Any of several fishes of the tropical shores of America resembling sea-bass, but set apart in the family Centropomidae. All are robust, dark-colored fishes, from two to four feet in length, and several kinds are of great importance in the local markets. The most valuable in the West Indies and along the Spanish Main is the species Centropomus undecimalis, called also 'snook' and 'brochet-de-mer.'

ROBBER-FLY. Any one of the dipterous insects of the family Asilidæ. These are strong, hairy, active, predatory flies, which are very numerous and always conspicuous, flying with a darting motion and preying upon many different kinds of insects. They are rather slender, but extremely strong, and are furnished with a large tapering hard beak inclosing a sharp lancet which is thrust out and cuts a severe wound in the body of the insect captured. The tip of the beak is bearded with stiff bristles which hold it securely in the wound into which it is crowded. They destroy very many injurious insects, but are noted enemies of the honey-bee.

OF.

ROBBER SYNOD. See EPHESUS, COUNCILS

ROBBERY (OF. robberie, roberie, from robber, rober, to rob, from ML. raubare, from OHG. roubōn, Ger. rauben, Goth. bi-raubōn, AS. réafian, Eng. reave; connected with Lat. rumpere, to break, Skt. lup, to break, plunder). In substance robbery is an aggravated form of larceny, although at common law it is treated as an independent offense. It consists in the larcenous taking of personal property which is on the person of another, or under the immediate protection of his person, accomplished by means of violence or intimidation. The offense is thus both a crime against property and against the person. The mere force required in the asportation of the property taken is not sufficient to make the crime robbery. Thus pocket-picking by stealth, or even snatching money from the open hand when there is no resistance, is simple larceny. Threats which do not amount to threats of personal violence are not sufficient to constitute the taking robbery, as when one induces another to give up property by threats of criminal prosecution or to injure his reputation by slanderous statements. It has been held otherwise, however, when the threat was to prosecute

for an unnatural offense. The violence need not be offered to the person giving up his property, but if offered to a person related to him by blood or marriage, and money or property be extorted for the purpose of protecting such relative from immediate personal violence, the offense is robbery. If the taking is accomplished without threat or violence, the use of violence as a means of retaining possession of the stolen property will not make the crime robbery. At common law robbery was a felony punishable by death. It is still deemed a felony, and is now punishable in England and the United States by penal servitude. See LARCENY. Consult the authorities referred to under CRIMINAL LAW.

ROB'BIA, DELLA. A celebrated family of Florentine sculptors and ceramists of the Renaissance, that flourished for nearly one hundred and fifty years. Its earliest and most widely known member was LUCA DELLA ROBBIA (1399-1482), sculptor and originator of the famous terra-cotta