Natural Rights (1895), Political and Social
Ethics (1902), and Plato (1902).

RITCHIE, THOMAS (1778-1854). An American journalist, born in Essex County, Virginia. After studying medicine and doing some teaching he removed to Richmond and became editor of the Examiner in 1804. He changed its name to Enquirer, and remained its editor and proprietor till 1845, when at the request of President Polk he gave it up to his sons and removed to Washington. There he founded the Union as the official organ of Polk's Administration. In 1849 he retired and spent his last years in Richmond. He was a States-rights Democrat and a born editor, full of pugnacity and Scotch stubbornHe made the Enquirer a power through the Union, and was himself an important figure in contemporary politics.

ness.

handed down by word of mouth perhaps for centuries; these must be known with exactness, for any error made in singing, even to the misplacing of a single vocable, will be fatal to the efficacy of the rite. The songs are not isolated, but divided into groups, which must follow in established order, and each has a place in its own group which must not be changed, under penalty of divine displeasure, and the officiating priest is obliged to remember this place, though the series may contain some two hundred or three hundred pieces. During the function, each day and each night has its own ordained duties. Although the performances of the Navahos may excel in precision and variety, yet the same character of ritualism seems to belong to Indian tribes through North and South America. If not found among any particular race, the deficiency may be attributed either to imperfect record, or to the social conditions which have brought into abeyance an earlier ceremonial religion.

The question presents itself, how far the be taken to represent general early religious principles applicable to American ritual may custom. For the answer to this inquiry material is as yet hardly accessible. It may be affirmed, however, that the evidence accessible seems to imply that the Indian ritual was typical. Among the Australians all tribes appear to have elaborate ceremonies, exhibiting many similar features. Throughout Africa full and detailed accounts have not yet been obtained representing the tribal ceremonies in which correspondence would be looked for. Early Egyptian art makes it clear that before the construction of the first pyramids there existed elaborate rites, in which stories of gods were acted out in dance, song, masquerade, and procession. and Roman literature has failed to preserve deAlthough Greek tailed accounts of local worship, it is certain that every district and temple at one time had its own mysteries, sacred dramas, and exact observance of ceremony.

RITE (Lat. ritus, custom; connected with riti, way, usage, ri, to flow). A religious act performed according to an established order, determined by rule and usage. In established religions, worship must be carried on in a specified manner, by particular persons, and at special times and places, while its conduct requires train ing in the celebrant, who usually belongs to an order of priests. The hymns of the Rig Veda, as compared with Hindu faiths of subsequent ages, show incomparably greater directness and simplicity. From these and similar cases it has been inferred that acts of worship were originally not limited by prescribed form, but might take place at any time and be performed by any individual at his own pleasure. If this doctrine were accepted the history of rites would be relatively modern. Recent investigations, how ever, have placed a different face on the matter; in North America, at least, aboriginal worship appears to have been ritualistic to an extraordinary degree. The Navahos, for example, possess elaborate ceremonies, of which many are of nine days' duration. So complicated are these, that to become a chanter is the task of many years, and no one person can perfectly know more than one rite. These offices are performed primarily in order to heal the sick, but have also the seconda ry purpose of securing temporal blessings of all sorts, of bestowing amusement and social pleasure, and in general of gratifying religious emotions. Other ceremonies are efficacious in planting, harvesting, building, war, nubility, marriage, travel, and rain-bringing. In their celebration means are employed which answer to the elements of ritual in other continents, such as prayer, sacrifice, singing, dancing, incense, music, painting, procession, and casting of sacred meal. In the ordering of the service the most minute accuracy is required; for example, use is made of 'kethawns,' or plumed prayer-sticks, which are conceived as conveying messages to the gods. Each of these wands has its own special symbol- RITSCHL, rich'l, ALBRECHT (1822-89). · A ism, must be offered in a particular manner, and German Protestant theologian, the founder of laid in a particular direction, so as to convey its one of the most important schools of theological tidings to one special deity. When the bearer of thought of the present time. He was born in the sacrifice leaves the lodge, he proceeds in a Berlin. His boyhood was spent in Stettin, his direction leading toward a selected place; after father having been Bishop and general superinhe has deposited his offering, he turns to the tendent of the Evangelical Church in Pomerania right and returns by a sunwise path. He must from 1827. He studied at Bonn, Halle, Heidelnot cross the trail taken in coming, must not berg, and Tübingen. In 1846 he became docent cross an ant-hill, and must run during the whole at Bonn, professor extraordinary of theology of his route. In the course of the ceremony songs in 1852, and full professor in 1859. In 1864 are chanted, which are traditional, having been he was called to Göttingen, where he died,

It

RITES, CONGREGATION OF. A committee of cardinals in the Roman Catholic Church, founded by Pope Sixtus V. (1585-1590). The number of members has varied from time to time. They are assisted by consultors and minor officials. takes cognizance of the liturgy, the rites pertaining to the sacraments, the rubrics of the missal and breviary, the ceremonies of the Church in its public functions, such as the feasts, the due reception of exalted personages, in order to secure uniformity and reasonable consistency, and the canonization of saints. The congregation meets at the house of the prefect, who is the senior cardinal of the congregation; but it has an office, the Palazzo della Cancelleria Apostolica, Rome. Consult Bangen, Die römische Curie (Münster, 1854).

instruments, born in Pennsylvania. When 12 years to the university at Kiel, and went thence in old, he inherited a small library containing a few 1837 to Göttingen. His great work, Geschichte works on mathematics and among them New- der Philosophie (Hamburg, 1829-53; 2d ed., ton's Principia. In 1751 he adopted clock-mak- vol. i.-iv., 1836-38), is still of value. In addition ing as a profession. He soon established a repu- he wrote works on logic, metaphysics, and tation as an astronomer and instrument-maker ethics. Ritter was largely influenced by Schleierof unusual ability, and in 1763 was engaged to macher. He died February 3, 1869. determine the boundary line since known as RITTER, HENRY (1816-53). A Canadian Mason and Dixon's line, for which he used in- genre painter, born at Montreal. He studied unstruments of his own construction. He was sub- der Gröger in Hamburg and under Karl Ferdisequently called upon to settle the boundaries nand Sohn at Düsseldorf. Among his characbetween New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, teristic and finely colored episodes from the life and several other States. Soon after he made of sailors and fishermen, showing the influence two orreries, one for Princeton College and one of Rudolf Jordan, the most prominent are: for the University of Pennsylvania. Ritten- "Braggart in Sailor's Tavern" (1841); "Offer house was appointed by the American Philosoph- of Marriage in Normandy" (1842, Leipzig Museical Society to observe the transit of Venus, um); "Drowned Son of the Pilot" (1844, RaJune 3, 1769. After 1770 he lived in Philadel- vené Gallery, Berlin); "Poacher Before Justice phia, and was a member of the convention that of the Peace" (1847), his largest painting; framed the first State Constitution. He also "Prairie Fire" (1851, Kunsthalle, Hamburg); served as the first State Treasurer (1777-89) and "The Son's Last Letter" (1852, Kunsthalle, director of the Philadelphia mint (1792-95). He Bremen); and "Middy's Sermon" (1853, Cologne was professor of astronomy in the University of Museum). Pennsylvania (1779-82), and was a member of many learned societies, including the American RITTER, KARL (1779-1859). An eminent Academy of Arts and Sciences, the Royal So- German geographer. He was born at Quedciety of London, and the American Philosophical linburg, Prussia, in 1779, and was educated Society, of which he was president after Frank- in the famous school of Salzmann at Schnepfenlin's death (1791). Most of his scientific thal and at Halle University. His earliest geopapers appeared in the Transactions of the graphical studies were printed in a paper pubAmerican Philosophical Society. Consult the lished for the young, and attracted wide attenMemoir by William Barton (1813). tion. His six maps of Europe were published in 1806 and his Geography of Europe, in two volumes, five years later. In 1816 he completed in Berlin the first volume of Die Erdkunde, his monumental geographical work, and a part of it was published in the following year. The whole of the first volume did not appear until 1832, and the following volumes were issued from the press in rapid succession. Die Erdkunde is the fullest encyclopædia of geographical lore. In this work Ritter unfolded and established the treatment of geography, as a study and a science, which has been indorsed and adopted by all geographers. He presented the earth's surface in its relations to nature and to man and as the foundation of the study of the physical and historical sciences. All the physical geographies of to-day profoundly show the influence of Ritter's writings. His position as a teacher became as eminent as his rank as a geographer. Many of Ritter's writings were printed in the Monutsberichte of the Berlin Geographical Society, and in the Zeitschrift His Geschichte der für allgemeine Erdkunde. Erdkunde und der Entdeckungen (1861), Allgemeine Erdkunde (1862), and Europa (1863) were published posthumously. Some of his works have been translated into English by W. L. Gage: Comparative Geography (1865), and The Comparative Geography of Palestine and the Sinaitic Peninsula (1866). Consult the Life by W. L. Gage (Edinburgh, 1867) and Kramer (Halle, 1864; 2d ed. 1875).

RITTER, AUGUST (1826-). A German civil engineer, born at Lüneburg, and educated at the Polytechnic Institute at Hanover, and at Göttingen. He was a practicing engineer for some time, in 1856 became teacher of mechanics and construction of machinery at Hanover, in the Polytechnic Institute, and in 1870 became professor in the School of Technology at Aix-laChapelle. He is best known as the author of Ritter's method of reckoning arches for bridges and roofs. He wrote Elementary Theory and Calculation of Iron Bridges and Roofs (German, 1863, 5th ed. 1894; Eng. by Sankey, 1879), Lehrbuch der technischen Mechanik (1864; 7th ed. 1896), Lehrbuch der Ingenieur-Mechanik (1874-76), and Lehrbuch der analytischen Mechanik (2d. ed. 1883).

RITTER, FRÉDÉRIC LOUIS (1834-91). A German-American composer, born in Strassburg. He studied under Moritz, Hauser, and Schletterer. In 1856 he came to the United States, resided for some years in Cincinnati, where he founded the Cecilia and Philharmonic societies, and in 1861 removed to New York City and conducted the Sacred Harmonic and Arion societies. In 1867 he organized a musical festival, which he conducted in New York, and was soon after appointed professor of music at Vassar College, which post he held till his death. He published many songs, orchestral, church, and pianoforte music, and several musical works, including History of Music (1870-74), Music in England (1883), and Music in America (1883). He died in Antwerp.

RITTER, HEINRICH 1791-1869). A German historian of philosophy. He was born at Zerbst, Anhalt, November 21, 1791; studied theology and philosophy at Halle, Göttingen, and Berlin, and in 1824 was created professor extraordinarius at Berlin University. In 1833 he accepted a call

RITTER, PAUL (1829-). A German architectural painter and etcher, born at Nuremberg. He was deaf and dumb from the fourth year of his life. A pupil of Heideloff, he engraved for publishers in Berlin, Stuttgart, and Nuremberg. About 1870 he took up painting in oil and acquired considerable reputation with his interiors and street views of Nuremberg, richly supplemented with historical figures, such as "Interior

course. The controversy raged most hotly between 1865 and 1880, and numerous attempts were made to obtain definite legislation on the subject. In the absence of any detailed prescription in ritual matters, the advanced school contended that the law of the Church of England held good in her daughter Church. In 1874 a canon was passed by the General Convention which made it the duty of the bishops to proceed against any minister accused of introducing unauthorized ceremonies or practices setting forth erroneous or doubtful doctrines, especially the elevation or adoration of the elements in Holy Communion, and all other like acts not author

to 1843. Then he was for five years Spanish Ambassador at Naples. He was afterwards Ambassador at Paris (1856), and at Florence (1860). His fame as a national poet began in 1813 with the publication of Ensayos poéticos. Other works of his are the epics Florinda (1825) and El moro expósito (1834), the plays Tanto vales cuanto tienes (1834), Don Alvaro (1835), and La morisca de Alajuar (1842), and the Historia de la sublevación de Nápoles (1848). His Obras completas have been edited by his son. RIVE, rêv, DE LA. See DE LA RIVE.

RIVE-DE-GIER, rêv'de-zhê'â'. A town in

the Department of Loire, France, on the Gier, 19 It is in one of the best coal fields in France, and miles southwest of Lyons (Map: France, L 6). has over fifty coal mines, also iron works, glass works, and silk factories. Exports are facilitated by canal communication with Givors, on the Rhone. Population, in 1901, 16,087.

RIVÉ- (rê'vā') KING, JULIE (1859-). An American pianist born of French parents in Cincinnati. She studied under William Mason and S. B. Mills in New York, Carl Reinecke in Leipzig, and Liszt in Weimar. Her début occurred in Leipzig in 1873. The following year she returned to Cincinnati and in 1875 appeared at a Philharmonic concert in New York. She subsequently gave many concerts with the Thomas and Seidl orchestras and became well known as a brilliant concert pianist. Her compositions are for the piano, and enjoy considerable popularity.

ized by the rubrics of the Prayer Book. But the canon was practically a dead letter from the first, and, as in England, ritual observances which fifty years earlier would have raised a tempest of opposition are now common among the most moderate churchmen. The movement in favor of a more ceremonial conduct of divine worship has spread far beyond the limits of the Anglican Communion, and among Presbyterians (especially in Scotland), Methodists, and other Protestant bodies, there have been numerous instances of the introduction of ceremonies hitherto unheard of, all tending in the same direction. Consult: MacColl, The Reformation Settlement (London, 1899); several essays in Shipley, ed., The Church and the World (ib., 1866); Walker, The Ritual Reason Why (ib., 1867); Gladstone, The Church of England and Ritualism (ib., 1876); Parry, Report of the Royal Commission on Ritual (ib., 1867); Balfour, "How the Ritualists Harm the Church," in North American Review (New York, RIVER (OF. riviere, Fr. rivière, from ML. 1899); Barry, "What is Ritualism?" and Cor- riparia, shore, river, fem. sg. of Lat. riparius, rance, "The Development of Ritualism," in Con- relating to a shore, from ripa, shore). A natural temporary Review (London, 1898); Gallwey, drainage line on the land, which, in addition to Twelve Lectures on Ritualism (ib., 1879); Ros- carrying off the surface water, always bears a coe, ed., The Bishop of Lincoln's Case (ib., 1891). load of mineral matter in suspension and soluRIVALS, THE. A comedy by Richard Brinstion. The water supply is derived from the rain or melting snow and from underground, whence ley Sheridan, produced January 17, 1775. On its first representations it was almost a failure, of springs. It is this latter source of supply it reaches the surface by seepage or in the form but it has since held the stage more successfully which causes so many rivers to maintain their than most eighteenth-century plays. It has more action, though less brilliancy, than The School flow even when no rain has recently fallen. The for Scandal. The rivals are Bob Acres and load of mineral matter is obtained partly by solu Beverly (Captain Absolute), who contend for tion in the passage of the water through the soil Lydia Languish. Acres challenges Captain Abor rock, partly by the mechanical wearing or corsolute by Sir Lucius O'Trigger, but finding herosion of the stream bed, and partly by the supis a friend, declines to fight. Mrs. Malaprop, with her delightful blunders, supplies a large part of the humor of the play.

RIVAS, rē vȧs. The capital of the Department of Rivas, Nicaragua, 50 miles southeast of Managua (Map: Central America, E 5). It is the centre of a rich cacao-producing region, and manufactures and exports chocolate. It occupies the site of the ancient Indian town of Nicarao. Population, in 1895, 12,000.

RIVAS, ANGEL PEREZ DE SAAVEDRA, Duke of (1791-1865). A Spanish soldier, statesman, and poet, born in Cordova. He entered the army in 1807, and fought through the Spanish war of independence, retiring from the service in 1815. He participated in the revolution of 1820, was Secretary of the Cortes in 1821, and was forced to leave the country in 1823, residing in England, Malta, and France. He returned to Spain in 1834, came into possession of the ducal title of Rivas, and became Minister of the Interior in 1836. He was again forced into exile from 1837

plies furnished by the rain-wash and weathering off the water forms a valley which varies in size of the valley sides. In the course of this runand characteristics. Usually this valley is on the surface of the land, though occasionally beneath the surface, as in Mammoth Cave of Kentucky.

Most rivers flow from higher country into lakes, or into the sea; but in arid countries many streams terminate on the land because the river water sinks into the ground and evaporates. The Western United States offers many illustrations of these conditions. In such arid regions the large rivers that are fed by a permanent supply from the mountains are often able to maintain their course across even desert regions. The Nile of Egypt and the Colorado of Utah and Arizona are illustrations of such rivers.

From the headwaters to the mouth a river has a slope which varies from one part to another. Ordinarily the steepest slope is near the head and the most gentle near the mouth, where the stream commonly flows quietly through a flood