others are inclusive. Another distinction between the two types lies in the fact that if the earlier is ethical and legalistic, the latter is spiritual. The religions coextensive with life lay more weight on the spirit of man in its relation with the divine, and less, relatively speaking, on cult and ritual. A striking example of this is seen in the origin of Buddhism, which is essentially a revolt from the excessive rituality of Brahmanical Hinduism toward a deep spirituality with, in its pure form, almost no cult. As the maintenance of a priesthood is conditioned in a great measure by an elaborate cult, it is obvious that in this final type, conspicuous for simplicity of ritual, the priest occupies a far less important position than in the religions either of primitive or advanced culture. This affords in part the explanation of the fact that the reforms which have resulted in religions of the highest type have been made in every case by individuals outside the priestly code, by the Hebrew Prophets, by Buddha, Zoroaster, Mohammed, and Jesus. Nor is this in any way a reproach to the priest. For he is in the nature of things a conserver, not an inaugurator, and rightly so, and if in some instances he is shown by the results to have been over-cautious, he is not thereby to be convicted either of dishonesty or of ignorance. Finally, religions of this class go further than the individual or than the State, herein contrasting sharply even with the religions of advanced culture. They aspire to be world-religions, and three of them, Buddhism, Mohammedanism, and Christianity, are in fact the leading religions in numbers and extent. We have in this aspiration yet another characteristic distinction between the religions coextensive with life and all other forms of religious cult.

HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF COMPARATIVE RELIGION. The study of comparative religion is of modern origin. It is indeed true that we find in the histories of Herodotus, in the De Iside et Osiride of Plutarch, in the De Dea Syria, generally ascribed to Lucian, in the Germania of Tacitus, and in brief mention in numerous other classical authors accounts of religions other than Greek or Roman. Yet here, as might be expected, the historic knowledge was too slight to render the philosophical part of the work anything but superficial, although the descriptive part is still of value. The general attitude of the Greeks and Romans, who alone of the ancient world touched the subject of comparative religion, is one of contempt. This was succeeded by a not unnatural intolerance in the attitude of the Church Fathers and medieval theologians. This atti tude remained practically unchanged until the rise of skepticism in the eighteenth century. Yet there was no real progress in the study of religion, for dogmatism was succeeded by superficiality. It is noteworthy that the first real impulse to an historical study of religions came with the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. To this early period belong such books as the Pansebeia, or View of All Religions in the World, of Ross (London, 1653), and the Ceremonies and Religious Customs of the World, of Picart and Bernard (ib., 1733). This latter work is in a sense the forerunner of the historical method of religious study, and is far superior to one of its most important successors, the Origine de tous les cultes ou religion universelle of Dupuis

(Paris, 1795). The real founder of the historical school, however, was Herder, who outlined the history of religion, so far as it was then possible, in his Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte der Menschheit, published in 1784, although his previous writings indicate that many of his ideas on this subject had been formulated much earlier. The year after Herder's Ideen saw the publication of Meiners's Grundriss der Geschichte aller Religionen, followed twenty-one years later by his Allgemeine kritische Geschichte der Religionen. In the decade 1821-31 the foundations of a scientific philosophy of religion were laid by Hegel in his Vorlesungen über die Philosophie der Religion (not published, however, until 1832). The credit of inaugurating the study of comparative religion in a truly scientific spirit and method, however, must be given to Max Müller, even though his views are now in great part rejected in the light of later investigations. In a long series of volumes, including Lectures on the Science of Religion (London, 1872), Natural Religion (2d ed., ib., 1892), Physical Religion (ib., 1890), Anthropological Religion (ib. 1891), and Theosophy or Psychological Religion (2d ed., ib., 1899) he developed his system. He also aided in the establishment of the Hibbert Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion in 1878, and above all founded in 1879 the epoch-making series of translations entitled The Sacred Books of the East. A still greater name than Max Müller's is that of Tiele, of Leyden, whose Outlines of the History of Religion (translated from his Dutch Hoofdtrekken der Godsdienstwetenschap into English by Carpenter, London, 1877, 3d German ed. by Weber and Söderblom, Breslau, 1903) is by all odds the best general survey of religions from an historical and descriptive point of view, while his Elements of the Science of Religion (Edinburgh, 1897-99) and his Geschiedenis van den Godsdienst in de oudheit tot op Alexander den Groote (Amsterdam, 189197) are no less authoritative. In France the study of comparative religion received a powerful impetus in the establishment in 1888 of the Musée Guimet. In America there is as yet little general interest in this science, although signs are not lacking that comparative religion will receive here also the attention which it merits both from a theoretical, an historical, and a practical point of view. The activity in the science, despite the lack of recognition on the part of many universities and the unfounded suspicion with which it is viewed by certain classes even of the educated, is most promising, among the eminent investigators being Réville, of France; Saussaye, of Holland; Achelis and Edmund Hardy, of Germany; Tylor and Frazer, of England; and Toy and Jastrow, of America.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. The bibliography of comparative religion is very extensive. Among general works some of the most important are, in addition to those already mentioned: Lichtenberger, Encyclopédie des sciences religieuses (12 vols., Paris, 1877-83); Saussaye, Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte (2d ed., Freiburg, 1897, contains also bibliographies); Orelli, Allgemeine Religionsgeschichte (ib., 1899); Jastrow, The Study of Religion (New York, 1901, contains an excellent bibliography); Tiele, Kompendium der Religionsgeschichte (3d German ed., Breslau, 1903, containing abundant bibliographies). For

the philosophy of religion reference may be made to Caird, Introduction to the Philosophy of Religion (2d ed., London, 1889); Hartmann, Religionsphilosophie (Leipzig, 1888); Lotze, Grundzüge der Religionsphilosophie (ib., 1882, Eng. trans. by Ladd, Boston, 1885); Pfleiderer, Philosophy and Development of Religion (Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1899); Sabatier, Esquisse d'une philosophie de la religion d'après la psychologie et l'histoire (6th ed., Paris, 1901, Eng. trans., London, 1897); Siebeck, Lehrbuch der Religionsphilosophie (Freiburg, 1897). As additional general manuals may be mentioned: D'Alviella, Introduction à l'histoire générale des religions (Brussels, 1886); Jevons, Introduction to the History of Religion (London, 1896); Réville, Prolegomènes de l'histoire des religions (Paris, 1881, Eng. trans. by Squire, London, 1884). Special topics of importance are treated in Frazer, Totemism (London, 1887); id., The Golden Bough (2d ed., ib., 1900); Hartland, Legend of Perseus (ib., 1894-96); Lang, Myth, Ritual, and Religion (2d ed., ib., 1899); id., Magic and Religion (ib., 1901); Taylor, Ancient Ideals (New York, 1896); Réville, Les religions des peuples non civilisés (Paris, 1883, with bibliographies); Tylor, Primitive Culture (2d ed., London, 1878); Roskoff, Religionswesen der rohesten Naturvölker (Leipzig, 1880). The two most important periodicals devoted to comparative religion are the Revue de l'histoire des religions (Paris, 1880 et seq.), and the Archiv für Religionswissenschaft (Freiburg, 1898 et seq.). Discussions of individual religions not treated under special titles are contained in Réville, Religions du Mexique, de l'Amérique centrale et du Pérou (Paris, 1885); Abeghian, Armenischer Volksglaube (Leipzig, 1899); Leger, Mythologie slave (Paris, 1901); D'Arbois de Jubainville, Le cercle mythologique irlandais et la mythologie celtique (ib., 1884); Rhys, Celtic Heathendom (London, 1886). See also BUDDHISM; CHINESE EMPIRE, section on Religion; CONFUCIUS; DEMONOLOGY; DRUID; EGYPT, section on Religion; FETISHISM; GHOSTS; GREEK RELIGION; INDIA, section on Ancient Religion; JAINISM; MAGIC; MEXICAN ARCHEOLOGY; MoHAMMEDANISM; MYTHOLOGY; NATURE WORSHIP; PERSIAN MYTHOLOGY; PERUVIAN ANTIQUITIES; PHALLICISM; PRIEST; ROMAN RELIGION; SACRIFICE; SHAMANISM; SHINTO; SUPERSTITION; SWASTIKA; TABOO; TAOISM; SCANDINAVIAN AND TEUTONIC MYTHOLOGY; TOTEMISM; ZOROASTRIANISM; and the bibliographies and cross-references under these titles.

RELIGIOUS EDUCATION. See SCHOOLS. RELIGIOUS ORDERS. See ORDERS; MON

ASTICISM.

RELIGIOUS SOCIETIES. In a legal sense, those corporations formed for the advancement of religion or the administration of church property for religious purposes. To the efforts of religious corporations in the Middle Ages to acquire vast holdings of land was due the enact ment of the various Statutes of Mortmain (q.v.). Most of the States of the United States now have general laws governing the formation of religious corporations and defining their powers. Generally there is no limit to their power of acquiring land for church purposes and all their property used directly for church or religious purposes is exempt from taxation. See COR

PORATION; CANON LAW; and compare CIVIL CHURCH LAW and CLUB.

The

RELIQUARY (ML. reliquare, reliquarium, contain relics. Reliquaries are made of all kinds from Lat. reliquiæ, remains). A case or box to of materials, such as wood, iron, stone, ivory, silver, enamel, gold, and crystal, and are frequently ornamented with costly jewels. Shrines are of the same description, but are on a larger scale and are permanent. As a class they are the most consummate masterpieces of mediæval minor artists, especially among the metal-workuries still possess numerous mediaval reliquaries, ers. Some of the cathedral and church treasfor example, San Marco at Venice, and the cathedrals of Aix-la-Chapelle and Cologne. reliquary in the form of a church at the Cathedral of Orvieto is one of the most wonderful pieces of thirteenth-century goldsmith work, with exquisite details. The Romanesque and Gothic periods were the golden age of such work (eleventh to fifteenth centuries). Rhenish and Flemish schools were easily preeminent, but in the thirteenth century Italy and France surpassed the northern schools. Reliquaries were of many shapes. They often took the form of the relic they contained, such as a hand, a foot, or a head. They were nearly always decorated with minute figures in relief or even statuettes, or with colored enamels and ornamental designs. The Renaissance led to a complete

decadence.

At first the

RELIQUES OF ANCIENT ENGLISH POETRY. A collection of old ballads and lyrics (1765), taken by Thomas Percy from an old manuscript of the early seventeenth century, which he found at a friend's house in Shiffnal, Shropshire. These ballads he altered and polished to suit the taste of his age, for which he was severely criticised. Ritson charged Percy with forged and garbled versions of many ballads, and even questioned the existence of the manuscript. This, however, was proved by an edition from the original in 1868 by Hales and Furnivall. In spite of Percy's inaccurate and unscholarly work, the Reliques has been a source of pleasure for generations and marks the revival of taste for romantic poetry.

REL'LY, JAMES (c.1722-78). A Universalist minister. He was born at Jeffreston, Pembrokeshire, Wales, was converted under Whitefield in 1741, and became an itinerant Methodist preacher. Being convinced that Universalism was true, he parted company with the Methodists, and preached independently in various places. In 1761 he settled in London and preached there, without much success. It was, however, under him that John Murray (q.v.), the Apostle of Universalism in the United States, was converted.

REMAINDER (OF. remaindre, remain, from Lat. remanere, to remain, from re, back + manere, to stay). The fee tail, the life estate, and the term of years are conceived of as being less in quantity than a fee simple (see ESTATE), and the gift of such an estate leaves something -some part of the fee simple-undisposed of, which may remain, or revert back, to the grantor (in which case it is called a reversion), or may be given by the same deed which creates the lesser estate to a third person as a remainder. There may, indeed, be any number of remainders, one

after the other, until the entire fee simple has been disposed of, as, for example, after a present, or 'particular,' estate to A for life, remainder to B for life, remainder to C for life, remainder to D in fee tail, leaving still a fee simple to be given to E as a final remainder, or to come back to the grantor as a reversion. A remainder thus given to an ascertained person, ready to go into effect upon the determination of the precedent estate, is said to be vested. If given to an unborn or unascertained person, or upon a further contingency (as, when B shall return from abroad), it is a contingent remainder. Such a remainder was at common law scarcely of sufficient importance to be regarded as an estate at all. It was incapable of alienation to a stranger and was liable to be extinguished by the accidental or deliberate determination of the precedent estate before the contingency had happened on which the remainder was to vest. But modern legislation has given the contingent remainder much of the definiteness and permanence of the vested remainder by freeing it from this dependence upon the precedent estate.

Though classified as a future estate, a remainder is conceived of as a present interest and as capable of being dealt with as such by the owner thereof. It may thus be alienated like any other property (though, being 'incorporeal,' it has always required a deed of grant to convey it), and, being real property, it will, if a remainder in fee, descend to the heirs of the owner. Although efforts have been made in some of the

United States to wipe out by legislation the distinction between remainders and other future estates, these have not completely succeeded, and the distinction is still of fundamental importance in this country as well as in England. ESTATE; FUTURE ESTATE; PROPERTY.

See

Consult: Digby, History of the Law of Real Property (Oxford, 1875); Fearne, The Law of Remainders; Leake, Law of Property in Land (London, 1874); Blackstone and Kent, Commentaries.

REMAINDER THEOREM. An algebraic principle of great service in factoring. The theorem may be stated thus: If f(x) is a rational integral algebraic function of a, then the remainder arising from dividing f(x) by x-a is f(a). Since the dividend equals the product of the quotient and the divisor plus the remainder, we have f(x) = q ( x − a) + r, and if x = a, the equation becomes f(a) = r. Similarly the remainder arising from dividing f(x) by x+a is f(-a). When the remainder is zero the division is exact, hence the divisor is a factor of the given function. E.g. y is divisible by + y when n is odd, since the remainder (y+y) =0. The rational binomial factors of functions above the second degree are readily determined by use of the remainder theorem and synthetic division. E.g. to factor a36a2+11a6, it is only necessary to substitute, for a, factors of the absolute term -6. Using detached coefficients (see COEFFICIENT), the division by a 1 may be performed thus:

REMAK, rā'måk, ROBERT (1815-65). A distinguished German physiologist and embryologist, born at Posen. He studied at Berlin; in 1847 was privat-docent at Berlin, and was elected professor extraordinary in 1859. Besides important work on the physiology of the nerves, he, with Kölliker, further elaborated the germ-layer theory. His chief embryological work was Untersuchungen über die Entwicklung der Wirbeltiere (1851-53).

REMBRANDT, rèmʼbrånt, properly REMBRANDT HARMENSZ VAN RIJN, här'mens vän rīn (1606-69). The chief master in painting and etching of the Dutch school. The date of his birth is disputed, the most probable conclusion being that he was born at Leyden, July 15, 1606. His father, Harmen Geritsz van Rijn, a well-todo miller, sent him to a Latin school, preparatory to the university, but finally permitted him to follow his inclinations for painting. After studying with his relative, Jacob van Swanenof Pieter Lastmann at Amsterdam, from whom burgh, at Leyden, he was for six months a pupil he learned the technique of etching, and whose influence was decisive upon his art. He was a very precocious genius, and upon his return to Leyden he soon acquired a high reputation. About 1631 he removed to Amsterdam, where he speedily became the most fashionable portrait painter, and had many pupils. Among his patrons were Frederick William, the Prince of Orange, and Burgomaster Jan Six; the foremost men of the day, like the poet Jeremiah Decker and Constantin Huygens, were his friends and associates. He bought a fine house in the Breedstraat, which he equipped with quaint costumes, weapons, and the like, and which contained his remarkable art collection, especially rich in old Netherlandish prints. He possessed paintings of Giorgione, Raphael, Michelangelo, and even antique sculptures.

But

A very important event in Rembrandt's life was his marriage in 1634 with Saskia Uylenburgh, a young lady of wealthy and influential Amsterdam family. Their happy married life was the inspiration of many of his best works. After her death in 1642, he drew back even more from the world, especially after his financial misfortunes, which censorious biographers have ascribed to dissipation and extravagance. although it is true that he expended a large sum upon his art collection, his misfortunes are rather to be ascribed to the hard times then prevailing in Holland, and to the change in public taste. In 1657 his creditors sold his wonderful collection, including several of his own paintings, for the pitiful sum of 5000 florins, and in 1658 his house for 11,000. But Titus, Saskia's son, and Hendrickje Stoffels (or Jaghers), a young woman who had become his housekeeper in 1649, formed a partnership for the disposal of Rembrandt's pictures, and rented a house in the Rozengracht, paying the artist a stated yearly salary. After ten years of toil the old artist satisfied his creditors. The stories of his dissipation and low associates in later life are unfounded. His chief associates were artists and he was interested in the inhabitants of the Ghetto; but he also had more influential friends, like Jan Six. Hendrickje died in 1664, leaving a daughter Cornelia, and

the Westerkerk, Amsterdam, on October 8, 1669.

The world has never produced a more original artist than Rembrandt. In theory and in practice he was the great antipode of what was considered the standard art of his day-the Italian. He knew no model, except nature. His conception of nature was essentially poetic and picturesque, but at the same time virile. The most prominent technical characteristic of his work is a marvelous rendition of light, through which he emphasized the important part, leaving the rest in luminous shadows. At first he painted in full light, but after 1633 he preferred the inclosed light of the studio. Everything appears in subtle harmonies of gold and brown. His early pictures are painted with detailed execution and light color; but he increasingly uses a broader brush and richer color, and later in life his painting becomes highly impasto, almost decorative in character. He exercised great influence upon the art of his day, and a more lasting one upon the art of the nineteenth century. Among his many pupils were Gerard Dou, Govaert Flinck, and Ferdinand Bol.

Rembrandt was preeminent in portraiture, and no artist has succeeded better in rendering the head in a realistic, characteristic, and at the same time in a picturesque manner. Among his numerous portraits, perhaps the most interesting are those of himself and of his wife, Saskia. A charming picture is that of the young couple in an affectionate position at breakfast. The best known examples of Rembrandt's portraits are those of 1633, 1634, and 1637 in the Louvre; of 1635 in the Liechtenstein Gallery, Vienna, and in the National Gallery, London; of 1641 in Buckingham Palace. In later life he painted those in Munich (1658), National Gallery (London), and several in English private possession. The best known portraits of Saskia are at Dresden and Cassell; of Hendrickje Stoffels at Berlin; of his mother in Windsor Castle; of his son Titus and of his sister in the Imperial and Liechtenstein galleries, Vienna. Among other famous portraits

are:

a "Money Changer" (1627, Berlin); the "Polish Nobleman" (1631, Saint Petersburg); the poet Krul (1633, Cassel); the "Mennonite Preacher Aanslow Consoling a Woman" (Berlin Museum); the so-called "Frame-Maker" (Havemeyer Collection, New York, 1640); "Burgomaster Pancras and His Wife" (1645, Buckingham Palace); "Jan Six" (1654, Amsterdam); the "Ship Architect and His Wife" (in possession of the King of England); the so-called "Jewish Bride" (Amsterdam); and the "Architect" (1656, Cassel). Of his "Rabbis" a fine example is in Buckingham Palace; of his numerous "Old Women," the best known are in London and Saint Petersburg. Examples of his work may be seen in this country in the Metropolitan Museum, New York.

Rembrandt's most ambitious efforts in portraiture were groups similar in character to those of Hals. The masterpiece of his earlier fulllight treatment is the well-known "Anatomical Lecture" (1632, The Hague). It represents the anatomist Nicholas Tulp, who ordered the picture, making a post-mortem examination before a group of his associates. The heads are wonderfully expressive, and the dead body is treated in a manner at once realistic and delicate. On a still larger scale is his masterpiece of the second period, painted for the Town Hall and now in

the Amsterdam Museum. The fine treatment of chiaroscuro created the erroneous opinion that it represented a "Night Watch," by which title it is generally known, but it is, in reality, a portion of the civic guard issuing forth in broad daylight. His third chief work of this character is "De Stallmeesters" (1662), a representation of the presidents of the clothiers' guild, in the same museum-simple and harmonious in treatment, and showing the more sombre coloring of his last period.

Like the Italians of the fifteenth century, Rembrandt depicted religious subjects in apparel of the day, and chose especially the inhabitants of the Ghetto in their picturesque Oriental costumes. They are characterized by high dramatic power, and by deep religious feeling, of that homely and effective kind typical of the Dutch Calvinistic Church. Among the principal examples are the "Presentation of Christ in the Temple" (1631, The Hague); the "Descent from the Cross" (1633, Munich); "Samson Threatening His Step-Father" (1635, Berlin); the "Angel Leaving Tobias" (1637, Louvre); "Samson's Wedding" (1638, Dresden); the "Sacrifice of Manoah" (1641, ib.); “Reconciliation of Jacob and Esau" (1642, Louvre); "The Disciples of Emmaus” (1648, Louvre); "Jacob Blessing His Grandsons" (1656, Cassel) ; and "Return of the Prodigal Son" (Saint Petersburg). His mythological pictures make no endeavor to attain classic form or beauty, but strive for pure pictorial effects. Some of them, like the "Rape of Ganymede" (Dresden), even seem to burlesque the subjects. More serious examples are "Diana and Endymion" (Liechtenstein Gallery, Vienna); the "Rape of Proserpina" (Berlin); and "Danaë" (Saint Petersburg). The dozen landscapes which Rembrandt painted display the same poetic feeling and technical skill as his figure subjects. With emphasis of the essentials he has portrayed the beauty of the flat country about Amsterdam. The best known example is "The Mill," in possession of Lord Lansdowne (London); other examples are at Brunswick, Cassel, Dublin, etc.

Rembrandt was probably the most consummate etcher of all times, and held his rank on purely technical as well as artistic grounds. His etchings possess the harmony, tone, and poetry of his pictures, and whether sketchy or highly fin ished they are always masterpieces. Among his best known prints are the "Descent from the Cross" (1637); "Christ Healing the Sick;" "Christ Preaching;" "Burgomaster Jan Six;" and the well-known "Landscape with Three Trees." Examples of his prints, as well as of his admirable drawings, may be found in the Louvre, Albertina (Vienna), and British Museum, in the museums of Berlin, Dresden, Munich, Holland, and in several private collections.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Consult the biographies by Scheltema (Amsterdam, 1853); Vosmaer (Paris, 1877), the standard authority; Lemcke, in Dohme: Kunst und Künstler (Leipzig, 1877); Graul (ib., 1892); Michel (Paris, 1893); Knackfuss (Bielefeld, 1899); Malcolm Bell (London, 1899); Neumann (Stuttgart, 1900). For his etchings consult: Blanc (Paris, 1880); Seidlitz (Leipzig, 1896); and especially the reproductions of Rovinsky (Saint Petersburg, 1890 et seq.); for his drawings, Pippmann, Bode et al. (Berlin and London, 1888-90, 1902); and for reproductions of all his works, Bode (8 vols., Paris, 1897).

"THE SYNDICS OF THE DRAPERS," FROM THE PAINTING IN THE RYKS MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM