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analytics or calculus, the same power to reason well may be applied to reason in criminal procedure, materia medica or pathological diagnosis, or in the problems of the business world; and that the habit of concentration in the extraction of the cube or higher roots in algebra, or the translation of Greek or Latin may be extended in a similar Were such a theory true, power accumulated in one line might be used in many lines, independent of its origin.

manner.

Such a doctrine of general discipline of the mind is a costly doctrine. It is clear that such conclusions have their bases in false psychology, at least to a great extent. Such a theory holds that the purpose of education is not to prepare for a vocation or profession, but to train the intellectual faculties. This "grindstone theory," as Atkinson calls it, would cause many subjects to be carried too far for their greatest efficiency in a general course and the "excessive tediousness and painful drudgery" so begotten would drive a class into calculation too minute or vex them with "manifold problems."

The mind is not a reservoir of force or energy. It is not of a homogeneous nature, such that improving it for functioning in one line would improve it for functioning in all lines. Even the amateur student in psychology knows that the localiaztion of function in the brain precludes such unity of the mind. The doctrine of general discipline is based on the old faculty psychology. Modern psychology does not recognize such faculties. The old psychology upon which is based the doctrine holds that memory, reason, feeling, observation, attention, etc., are entities that may be used, developed or impaired in themselves as units of the mind-that is to say that the mind is like a great machine, that is, made up of many parts, each to a limited extent, a unit in itself, yet not existing completely isolated from one another, but each permitting development independently of one another.

According to this theory, algebra and geometry develop reasoning, Latin and Greek improve memory, literature develops the emotions, and the sciences develop the powers of observation. It may be mentioned in connection with this phase of the discussion, that actual investigation shows that very many of the teachers in Indiana high schools are, many of them unconsciously, teaching algebra and Latin, not with the purpose that the child may acquire knowledge which may be applied in any manner toward furthering the great purpose of education, namely, social efficiency-but that they are teaching these subjects in keeping with the centuries old doctrine of general or formal discipline of the mind."

It seems to me that Mr. Moore, in the text on page sixty-five (q. v.), touches the vital point when he says, concerning the harm that the doctrine works, that "the tragic aspect of the doctrine of formal (general) discipline is that it is handed down by the colleges to the lower schools, and infects pretty completely all forms of education.' Thousands of teachers meet their classes day after day, and unconsciously apply the "rubber stamp" of this doctrine and close their schools, day after day, believing themselves to be teach

ers.

This application of the general discipline theory is begun in the grades and is continued throughout the high school course, enveloping, one by one, the studies in the "net," and as the author states, little by little, transforms them into apathy-breeding, mind-destroying treadmills.

It is the duty of the teacher to cease this "oriental" walking in the trodden paths, and to put life, real life, in all its fulness, into his or her work in teaching these subjects that are so accustomed to receive the "formal discipline" treatment. The harm wrought by the fallacious doctrine can be counteracted in no better way. Latin can be made an interesting subject, if it be taught as applied Latin, and algebra as applied mathematics has no rival for

interest and profit. If the teacher will arouse himself to the needs of the hour there will be left no trace of this erroneous doctrine to vex the minds of the pupils of the public schools and the usual high school mortality will be reduced almost to a negligible quantity. Mr. Moore tells us that anybody of knowledge may be taught from the viewpoint of formal discipline. The truth of his statement goes unchallenged, and, in fact, there is more of that kind of teaching than of the practical kind, but the teachers do not realize that they are "formal disciplinarians."

Recently the questions in science of education on one of the examinations for high school license demonstrated the truth of this condition. One question asked for a discussion or definition of the "doctrine of formal discipline." With a very few exceptions the applicants had no knowledge of what was meant by the term "formal discipline." Yet another question in the same list asked for the purpose or aim of the average teacher in teaching Latin and algebra, and the applicants were almost unanimous in their "formal discipline" purpose in teaching these subjects, yet they were unconscious of the fact that it was formal discipline that had, in the words of Mr. Moore, "infected" them.

In this chapter the author attempts an analysis of the doctrine in question. There is doubtless much that might be added to his many good conclusions which he has reached in his investigations. He cites the opinions of many educators and the experiments performed by them which, he claims, support his ideas as to the fallacy of this doctrine.

Plato in his "Republic," which has been characterized as "the finest treatise on education ever written," does not contain a sentence propounding the doctrine of formal discipline. Aristotle supported "faculty psychology,' but nowhere did he speak of education as existing to form or develop these faculties. Quintilian in the "Institutes of

Oratory" refers to this doctrine but turns his back to it and tries to find other and better reasons for the practice which he recommends. Locke believed the true function of education to be the development of the powers or "faculties" of the mind. Wolf opposed the "grindstone theory." And so it goes. There have been advocates and opponents. Each class has read its own meaning in to the experiments.

In my opinion there are extreme advocates and extreme opponents. Both may be wrong to an extent. Undoubtedly there have been results obtained that do point toward the truth of the doctrine. (Mind you, I say point, not prove.) On the other hand the opponents say that these results are not identities,but analogies. One author says, "Knowledge and training are not merely specific in their application, but they also have a general value.' It appears to me that this statement is true. It is this general value that causes some authorities to see a little virtue in the doctrine of general discipline.

This value arises thus: Theoretically, the acquisition of knowledge may exert a general educative influence. This influence may come through the factor of identical elements, namely, identity of substance and identity of procedure. That is, subjects, such as physics and mathematics, that have a part of their substance or content in common will be mutually beneficial. A study of Latin will make the study of Spanish easier. We do not doubt these statements. But Fracker holds that this is "spread" of training and not "transfer" of training. Or the method of procedure in one subject will be helped materially in the study of a subject where a similar method is used. Again this general educative influence may come "through the principle of habit formation which may modify inherent disposition or it may come through giving exercise to the brain, which may have a general tonic effect on the mind through the brain."

While this value arises "through the factor of identical elements, it declines rapidly as the similarity of the material of instruction or training decreases." Then since this decline is so rapid there is but one conclusion to be reached and it is that this doctrine of general discipline has "no value as a criterion for the selection of subject matter." If we retain Latin or algebra in the curriculum on the basis of disciplinary effect our support is extremely slender. Intrinsic value is the only right basis for retaining and defending a subject.

We admit Latin and algebra into the course of study on the basis of intrinsic value and, therefore, we should give full emphasis to these so-called formal or general values. This is true of any subject. We may add that we get little of these general values without aiming definitely for them.

What has been said of Latin and algebra is equally true of all subjects. Mr. Moore refers especially to physical training which in itself is specific, not general. The idea that the mind. must be exercised as is the body, that mental powers must be developed as are bodily powers is a mere justification by confusion, for the physical trainer has not exercises that will train the body as a whole, nor are there any mental gymnastics that train the mind as a whole.

memory,

What is the effect of training the or can the memory be trained? Richardson says there are a hundred memories as there are a hundred virtues. Experiment has shown that regular periods or habits in an attempt to memorize are successful in a given field but not in a general field. The daily memorizing of poetry will show improvement in the memory in that line but will not show improvement in a general line. The memory of one sense may be lost without impairing those other senses. James holds that the native retentiveness which we bring with us at birth cannot be changed; that all improvement of the memory lies in the line of elaborating the associates of each of the several kinds of things to be remem

bered; that no amount of culture would seem capable of modifying a man's general retentiveness. Every "so-called" method of training the memory is merely a method of studying the facts to be remembered-a better method of going to work to associate them with other facts. Improvement by practice in memorizing will be found to reside in the mode of study of the particular selections. The improvement is specific, not general.

According to Mr. Moore the transferability of training is not the question of formal discipline. Applying a method of study or mental action learned in one context to a recognizably similar problem does not involve the question of formal or general discipline. Since the mind is a generalizer we are never called upon to apply acquired learning in just the same conditions as those in which we learned it. We may transfer what was learned in an old situation to what is required in the new if it calls for the same method and the context in which it was learned is sufficiently like the context of the problem to call it forth.

So it is with judgment, observation and imagination.

In the light of these considerations, is there such a thing as a general training of the "faculties" or functions of the mind? The acceptance of the fundamental doctrine of modern psychology that there are no "faculties" in the mind, necessarily abandons the doctrine of formal or general training in education. The mental and moral virtues are not general-they are specific. Therefore, we must abandon the claim of mind training or mind forming and take up the task of informing

the mind.

The studies afford opportunity, not for general training, but for special training or content training. We must teach correctly and abandon confidence in the mystical power of studies.

(Note: This articles is intended to review the doctrine of formal discipline as discussed by Mr. Moore and to add to his discussion other points relating to the subject.)

The Valley of Democracy-Nicholson
Review by May Hamilton Helm.

A Walt Whitman picture of Democracy opens this chapter on Types and Diversions "this flashing America is only you and me."

The author who is known to be thoroughly aristocratic-"a lover of excellence"-reveals also his own democratic spirit.

ears.

A most pleasing anecdote of a former schoolmate recently came to my When aprons "were worn," this little Walt Whitman democrat refused to wear white aprons to school, because the other girls couldn't afford them!

The spirit of hospitality, so evident throughout the middle west, Mr. Nicholson considers a direct inheritance from our pioneer ancestors, who, when not good neighbors were apt to be considered enemies.

Like true eloquence, and all delightful literature, this chapter suggests even more than it says.

The reasons why J. N. Darling, the cartoonist, preferred Des Moines, Iowa, to New York, might well be incorporated in this book, as it seems it was the lack of "folksiness" that made New York a less desirable place of residence. One of the many clever tests of friendship cited was a willingness to sit up all night in a damp cellar. with your friend, feeding his dog lard to keep him from dying of poison!

The dolce-far-niente life of the modern young person is contrasted with the strenuous lives of their grandparents who subdued the wilderness, and planted that they might reap.

The rapidity with which history has been made is noticed by the finding of an Indian arrow-head on some modern golf course.

Some of us have been privileged to meet some of those sturdy pioneers. A charming old lady in Cincinnati could recall the time when their cows pastured on the site of Shillito's, and

told us that it was necessary to go well armed to "call the cattle home," as Indians were still lurking near.

Mr. Nicholson pays well deserved tribute to the housewife of the middle west, especially to the ease with which she entertains. (But isn't it true that a good manager doesn't get as much credit for really working-it seems so easy as the poor drudge whose "work is always chasing her"?)

As to women being less snobbish than men-I hae me doots. Having once assisted the head resident of a Community House in giving an operetta for and by the working girls, I was amazed to find the divisions and subdivisions existing; stenographers looked down on clerks, clerks on factory girls, factory girls on domestic servants (and vice versa!). It took much tact and not a little diplomacy to keep the cast together. This was finally accomplished by appealing to each, privately, to confer the inestimable benefit of her society upon those lower in the social scale. Like "M. Perrichon," each preferred to give than to receive.

Should our author chance to learn that his reviewer dared to differ from him on "snobbishness in women," it might "appease" him to know that all he has said about "provincialism" receives this reviewer's hearty Amen.

If those born in the south find each other congenial, that is surely sufficient reason why they should "swarm," but if one has ever had the depressing experience of attending one's own State Society in Los Angeles, one realizes that merely having been born in a certain locality is scarcely sufficient ground for the formation of a club, where one meets those one seldom sees any other time.

Our cartoonists and other gentle satirists, keep us from taking ourselves and our pleasures too seriously! One

of the saddest things about growing old is that things that once struck us as funny, now seem only pathetic.

In seeking "types," our author did not need to leave his home city, though it is quite true that certain types, well known a few years ago in all small towns, no longer exist, except on the stage and the picture screen.

The State University is called a well-spring of democracy, and has probably been one of the most power ful allies of the cause of equal suffrage.

"The value of the Great Lakes as a social and recreational medium is hardly less than their importance as commercial highways," and the general good order and decorum of the people at play was noticeable.

Mr. Nicholson's comments on the modern dances are almost as diverting as the dances themselves, and it rejoices one to learn that "the plain folk are so interesting and amusing"they undeniably are "some of whom we are which" (with apologies to Artemus Ward).

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In far-off russet cornfields, where the dry

Grey shocks stand peaked and withering, half concealed

In the rough earth, the orange pumpkins lie,

golden haze which makes the later autumn days so beautiful.

It is the busy month in rural sections, for it is the harvest period for many crops, and while the "tilled earth

naked and yellow from the harvest lies," the "tanned farmers labor without slack" to store away the rich fruits of the fields. In the calendar of Charlemagne September was called the "harvest month" and it still bears that name in Switzerland. The

Full ribbed; and in the windless pas- Anglo-Saxons were more specific in

ture field

The sleek red horses o'er the sunwarmed ground

Stand pensively about in companies, While all around them from the mo

tionless trees

The long clean shadows sweep without a sound.

This month, the transition month between summer and autumn, partakes of the character of both seasons. In the southern part of the United States it is one of the warmest months, and even farther north hot days are not infrequent; but the nights are likely to be cool, and there is more than often more than a touch of that

their choice of a name, and called September the "barley month."

The old rhyme declares that—
Thirty days hath September,
April, June and November.

Many of the months have undergone changes in their number of days, but September has always had thirty days. since the old Roman times. It has not always been, however, as it is today, the ninth month. Before the calendar was revised by Julius Caesar it was the seventh month, and its name is from the Latin septem, meaning seven; for when the month was shifted in the Julian calendar to the ninth place in the year, its name was unchanged.

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