Female differing but little in colour, if at all, from the prelude to this song resembles almost the double tonguing male. (Smith.) of the flute, blended with a tinkling, shrill, and clean Locality, Habits, Food, &c.-Dr. Smith states that im-warble, which re-echoes from his solitary retreat, like the mediately upon reaching Kurichane, this thrush began to appear in the thickets, and he continued to acquire occasionally a specimen even in the vicinity of the tropic. It seeks, he says, its food upon the ground, and, when so occupied, its resort is readily discovered by the natives from the noise it makes in scratching the ground, or in displacing rubbish and decayed leaves which conceal the insects it is seeking. The name by which it is known in the country it inhabits is, he informs us, characteristic of the vigour with which it employs its feet, and the nearest translation he can give is 'Ground-Scraper.'

Dr. Smith further remarks that the form of its bill, particularly towards the base, the length of its legs, and the shortness of its tail, are all characters which remove it from the more typical species of the genus Turdus; but yet there is in its structure and habits what necessarily constitutes it a true thrush. (Illustrations of the Zoology of South Africa.)

Example, Turdus mustelinus, Gm. Description.-Above, bright cinnamon brown, brightening into rufous on the head, and inclining to olive on the rump and tail. Beneath, whitish, thickly marked with pencil-shaped dusky spots. Vent pure white. Orbits of the eye white. Bill dusky brown, slightly notched, lower mandible flesh-coloured towards the base. Legs and claws very pale flesh-colour. Iris dark chocolate. Length 8 inches; alar extent 13 inches. (Nuttall.)

This appears to be the Turdus melodus of Wilson and Tawny Thrush of Pennant, and is generally known as the Wood Thrush.

He

Locality, Habits, Food, &c.-Nuttall states that this solitary and retiring songster inhabits, during summer, the whole continent from Hudson's Bay to Florida, and, according to his friend Mr. Ware, breeds as far south as the vicinity of Natchez, in the State of Mississippi. remarks that it is not satisfactorily ascertained whether the species quits the boundaries of the United States in winter, because the bird is then silent, and always difficult of access. He thinks it probable that this Thrush may winter in the Southern States, as a young bird, gleaning insects and berries, had been caught in a garden in Boston on the 26th October.

But, wherever the Wood Thrush may winter, it arrives in the Middle States from the 1st to the 15th of April. Nuttall thus describes its song and habits:

At the dawn of morning he announces his presence in the woods, and from the top of some tall tree, rising through the dark and shady forest, he pours out his few clear and harmonious notes in a pleasing reverie, as if inspired by the enthusiasm of renovated nature. The

dirge of some sad recluse who shuns the busy haunts of
life. The whole air consists usually of four parts or hars
which succeed, in deliberate time, and finally blend
together in impressive and soothing harmony, becoming
more mellow and sweet at every repetition. Rival pe
formers seem to challenge each other from various parts
of the wood, vying for the favour of their mates, wh
sympathetic responses and softer tones; and, some wageng
a jealous strife, terminate the warm dispute by an appeal
to combat and violence. Like the Robin and the Thrasher,
in dark and gloomy weather, when other binds are
sheltered and silent, the clear notes of the Wood Thr
are heard through the dropping woods, from dawn to ask,
so that, the sadder the day, the sweeter and more constant is
his song. His clear and interrupted whistle is likewise cen
nearly the only voice of melody heard by the traveller, to
mid-day, in the heat of summer, as he traverses the silent,
dark, and wooded wilderness, remote from the haunts of
men. It is nearly impossible by words to convey any
idea of the peculiar warble of this vocal herif, bot
amongst his phrases the sound of 'airõee, peculiarly liquid.
and followed by a trill, repeated in two interrupted ban
is readily recognisable. At times their notes bear a coo-
siderable resemblance to those of Wilson's Thrush, such a
eh rhehu 'vrchu, then varied to 'eh villia villa, e rela
vrehu, then, 'eh villa villu, high and shrill.

The Wood Thrush is always of a shy and retiring disposition, appearing alone, or only in single pairs, and while he willingly charms us with his song, he is content and even solicitous to remain concealed. His favourite haunts are low shady glens by watercourses, often rendered dark with alder-bushes, mantled with the trailing grapevine. In quest of his insect prey he delights to follow the meanders of the rivulet, through whose leafy shades the sunbeams steal only in a few uninterrupted rays over the sparkling surface of the running brook. So partial is fas bird to solitude, that I have known one to sing almst uniformly in the same place, though nearly half a male from his mate and nest. At times, indeed, he would venture a few faltering low notes in an oak near his consort, but his mellowest morning and evening warble was always delivered from a tall hickory, overtopping a grove of hemlock firs, in which the dimness of twilight prevailed at noon. The Wood Thrush, like the Night ingale, therefore, feels inspired in darkness, but, instead of waiting for the setting sun, he chooses a retreat where the beams of day can seldom enter. These shady retreats have also an additional attraction to our Thrush; it is here that the most interesting scene of his instinctive labour begins and ends, here he first saw the light, and breathed into existence, and here he now bestows his nest in a sapling oak, or in the next thick laurel or blooming alder, who berries afford him an ample repast in the coming autumn. Outwardly it presents a warm bed of withered beach or oak leaves, above these a layer of coarse old grass and leaf-stalks is laid, tempered with a mixture of mud and decayed wood smoothly plastered, so as to form a crast like the nest of the Robin. The whole is then surmounted by a thin lining of the black fibrous radicles of the ferm

He claims for himself the merit of the strictest accuracy, and it is impossible to read his History without being convinced of the trustworthiness of his statements. His impartiality also is conspicuous: although he had been banished from his native city, he does not, like Xenophon, turn renegade, and try to misrepresent the conduct and motives of his own countrymen. Although a contemporary, and one who had taken an active part in public affairs, he writes as free from prejudice and party-feeling as if he had lived at a time long subsequent to the events he narrates.

His History is constructed on entirely different principles from those of his predecessors. He confines himself strictly to his subject, and seldom makes any digressions. He feels deeply the importance of his work, and constantly strives to impress the same feeling upon his readers. He had proposed to himself a noble subject, and writes with the consciousness of the value of his labours, and the presentiment that his work will be read in all future ages. There is consequently a moral elevation in his style and mode of treating a subject, which is scarcely to be found in any other writer except Tacitus.

In narrating the events of the war, Thucydides pays particular attention to chronology. He divides each year into two portions, the summer and the winter, and is careful to relate under each the events that took place respect- | ively during that time. The speeches which he introduces are not mere inventions of his own, but contain the general sense of what the speakers actually delivered, although the style and the arrangement are his (i. 22).

give such a faithful representation of the past as would THUG (from Hindustanee fhagna, to deceive' means serve as a guide for the future (i. 22). His observation deceiver, and is the special appellation of secret marlenes of human character was profound; he penetrates with ex-in India, whom since the year 1810 it has been the erdes. traordinary clearsightedness into the motives and policy of of the British government to root out. Of their onzin noth the leading actors of the war; and he draws from the can be said with any degree of certainty. The Thugs events he relates those lessons of political wisdom which selves refer it to the remotest antiquity, and there is have always made his work a favourite study with thought-doubt that the ceremonies with which they carry on th ful men of all countries. murderous trade can be traced as far back as the ki aa Purâna, where we find them described with the utm accuracy. But before we proceed to investigate their history, of which we have only a slight and unsatisfactio knowledge, we shal describe them as they were at time of their discovery. Their gangs, consisting off ten to two or three hundred men of all races, castes, se and religions, yet all joining in the worship of Kali. m. about all parts of India, sacrificing to their tutelary guide @ every victim that they could seize, and sharing the pitelem among themselves. Still they shed no blood, excep forced by circumstances; murder being their rel performance of its duties required secrecy, and the ment of death was a rope or a handkerchief, which es excite no suspicion. They were stranglers. Every gang had its leader, the Jemadar or Sirdar; its teacher, thi Guru, whose duty it was to initiate the novice to the secret of using the roomal, or handkerchief. Thea ecze the Bhuttotes, that is stranglers, and the &thai, œ ertrappers, and at last the Lughaees, or gravedizzes. I a country like India, the striking character of whose inhan ants is an almost incredible apathy, it was easy for them commit the most outrageous murders without excung ti interest of the victim's relations. The immense junges which border the roads afforded the Lughaees every tart ny for effectually concealing the bodies; and the preva custom of travelling in parties prevented the destra of Sotha from being suspected, whenever he sunnunË offering the protection of his Jemadar to travelle their wealth induced him to entrap. The Thugs Deter ́s assume the appearance of merchants, which increa→s" confidence of their victims, whom they despatch w*:5 greatest celerity whenever they find a convenient par Whilst the Bhuttotes arrange themselves in a mater effect their purpose with facility, the Lughaces diz hole; and at a given signal the noose is passed roe name neck of the traveller, and, being taken unswares, in strangled without being able to make any resistance. F. is then thrown into the hole, and large incisions LT = in the abdomen to prevent the corpse from swelling, at the whole is covered over with a layer of dry sand, are of thorns and bushes, and over all is thrown t'e ezti which had been dug out, which they smooth dowy a 25 not to attract the notice of travellers. After every De they offer a sacrifice to Kali, which they call fires It is performed in the following manner:-A larre säert is spread over the cleanest spot they can select, an on the is cast a pile consisting of one rupee and four annas W. of coarse sugar; near this they place the cre pick-axe (an instrument sacred to Siva and Bhava”. a piece of silver as a rapa darsana, or silver of.. The leader then sits down on the sheet, and the stranglers place themselves on each side of him wit*, **, z faces to the west. They then distribute the sugar and ent it in solemn silence. But for this as well as other or monies we must refer to the works of Colonel Sleeman and Captain Meadows, as well as to an article in the 130A = ber of the Edinburgh Review. Here it will suffice to ethat many ceremonies to which the Thugs attach greatest importance are scrupulously performed by th both before and after the murder is committed; ta consulting the omens, propitiating Devi, thanksgiving ar We have already observed that Thugs were borz exercising their fearful trade in all parts of India. I Deccan they are called Phânsîgars (from Sanscrit pi noose) or noosers, and on them we have a very interest.g paper in the 13th volume of the Asiatic Researches T customs are the same as those of the northern Thus;!* having fewer Mohammedans among them, they are «T strict observers of the duties which their religion impos they kill neither women, nor old men, nor any of the subjects which the Kâlika Purana (in the Rudhira A 19 s declares to be unfit for a sacrifice to Devi. In the sa volume of the Asiatic Researches there is a article on them, by Mr. Shakespear: both were war' al in 1816.

The style of Thucydides is marked by great strength and energy. Not only his expressions, but even single words seem to have been well weighed before they were used; each has its proper force and significance, and none are used merely for the sake of ornament and effect. The style is not easy, and it is probable that Thucydides never intended it should be so, even to his own countrymen: his work was not to be read without thought. Still his style is open to serious objections. He does not sufficiently consult perspicuity, which is the first virtue in all writing. His sentences too are frequently unnecessarily long, and the constructions harsh and involved. These remarks are more especially applicable to the speeches inserted in the History, which Cicero found as difficult as we do. (Orator., 9.)

The Greek text was first published by Aldus, Venice, 1502, and the scholia in the following year. The first Latin translation, which was made by Laurentius Valla, appeared at Paris in 1513, fol. The first Greek and Latin edition was that of Henry Stephens, the Latin being the translation of Valla, with corrections by Stephens, 1564, fol. Among the modern editions, those most worthy of notice are Poppo's, which contains two volumes of prolegomena, with the scholia and numerous notes, Leipzig, 10 vols. 8vo., 1821-1838; Haack's, with selections from the Greek scholia and short notes, which the student will find very useful, 2 vols. 8vo., Leipzig, 1820, reprinted in London, in 3 vols. 8vo. 1823; Göller's, 2 vols. 8vo., Leipzig, 1836, 2nd edition, reprinted in London; and Arnold's, 3 vols. Svo., Oxford, 1830-1835, of which a second edition is in course of publication.

There are translations of Thucydides into most of the modern European languages. In English the first translation was made by Thomas Nicolls, from the French version of Seysel, and was published in London, 1530, fol. This was succeeded by the translations of Hobbes and William Smith, which have been frequently reprinted. The most recent is by S. T. Bloomfield, 3 vols. 8vo., London, 1829. The most recent translation in German is by Klein, München, 1826, 8vo.; and in French one of the best is said to be by Gail.

Respecting the life of Thucydides, the reader may consult Dodwell, Annales Thucydidei et Xenophonteii,' &c., Oxf., 1702, 4to.; and Krüger, Untersuchungen über das Leben des Thucydides,' Berlin, 1832.

The origin of this atrocious worship is undoubtedly Hindu. The Thugs maintain that their occupation is represented in the caves of Ellora, as well as all other trades. Moreover the terms they use are chiefly of Sanscrit origin; and the worship of Kâli corresponds so well to the religious ceremonies of the Thugs, that there can be no doubt as to their identity. To satisfy the reader on this head we refer to the 5th volume of the Asiatic Researches,' where a chapter from the Kâlika Purâna has been translated and communicated by Mr. Blaquière. All the ceremonies of the Thugs are fixed by this Purana, the date of which it is difficult to ascertain, but, frequent allusions being made to it in the Vîra Charita, a drama of Bhavabhûti, who lived at the court of king Bhoja in the beginning of the eighth century of our æra, we have sufficient reason to refer it at least to his time, if not to a previous period.

The Thugs then are a degenerate sect of Kâlî worshippers. They are very numerous in Bengal; but they offer only buffaloes and kids (Colebrook, Essays,' i. 111), and shed their blood, which they present to the idol in cups that are kept for that purpose. In like manner as the Saktas left the pure worship of Siva in order to indulge their gross sensuality, the Thugs abandoned the original worship of Kâlî to get a livelihood by plunder. Both nevertheless adhere strictly to the injunctions of their religion, which is taught in the Tantras of the Saktas and in the tradition of the Thugs, and thereby convert crime to a sacred duty. As well may be expected, secrecy was dictated by prudence, and hence it is that we find the Thugs seldom mentioned by travellers.

Thévenot, in his Travels (part iii., ch. 22), is the first to notice them; he describes them as infesting the road from Agra to Delhi, and using a long rope furnished with a noose, which they throw with great dexterity round the traveller's neck, and he relates that their Sothas were frequently women. About ten years after Thévenot, Dr. Fryer found them at Surat, where a gang of them were executed. He describes them as Thévenot does, and it appears from the description that they belonged to the Mooltaneas, a peculiar class of Mohammedan Thugs.

name of Arbor Vite, but why this name has been given to it is a matter of uncertainty. Clusius, who wrote in the sixteenth century, gives it this name, and Dr. Royle says that the Cypress, an allied genus, is called the tree of life in the East. It belongs to the section of Conifere called Cupressinæ by Richard, in which Cupressus, Callitris, Taxodium, and Juniperus are also included. The pistils and stamens are in separate flowers on the same tree. The male catkins are terminal and solitary; the pollen of each flower is included in four cases that are attached to the inner face of the scale towards its base. The female catkin is terminal; the ovary is united to the bractea, forming together a kind of receptacle; each receptacle has two ovules; the receptacles are semipeltate, imbricated, and smooth, or, in some cases, have a recurved beak near the tip; the seeds in some are slightly winged. The leaves are scale-like, closely imbricated or compressed. The species are evergreen, either trees or shrubs, and are inhabitants of Asia, Africa, and North America.

T. occidentalis, the Western or American Arbor Vitæ. has the branchlets 2-edged; the leaves imbricated in four rows, ovato-rhomboid, adpressed, and tuberculated; the cones are obovate with the interior scales truncate and gibbous beneath the apex. This plant is a large shrub or small tree, and is a native of North America, from Canada to the mountains of Virginia and the Carolinas. It is not so frequent in the Southern states, and is found there on the steep banks of mountain-torrents. In the Northern states of America it is sometimes called the white cedar, but more commonly arbor vitæ. It grows best in cool moist places, on the borders of rivers and lakes, and in swamps, some of which it covers to the extent of 50 to 100 acres. The stem of this tree seldom rises straight from the ground, but makes a short bend before it becomes straight. On this account it is difficult to obtain trunks of any length, and, although the timber is very durable, it is not much used in building. It makes good posts and rails, which last three or four times as long as any other species. Its branches are used for making brooms, a recommendation of which is, that they exhale an agreeable odour. In Great Britain the American arbor vitæ is planted as an ornamental shrub, for which purpose it flourishes best in low moist and sheltered situations. It will bear cutting well, and hence is employed for making hedges. It grows slowly, making 6 or 8 inches of stem in a year; the largest specimens in this country have attained a height of from 30 to 45 feet.

T. orientalis, the Oriental or Chinese Arbor Vitæ, has 2-edged branchlets; imbricated, ovato-rhomboid, adpressed leaves, furrowed in the middle and in 4 rows; the cones are elliptic with the interior scales blunt, and mucronate beneath the apex. It is a native of rocky situations in Siberia and China, and on the mountains of Japan. It is a low tree and easily distinguishable from the American species by its denser foliage and lighter green colour. It has a straight trunk, and seldom exceeds 18 or 20 feet in height. It is a hardy plant, and flourishes in the gardens about London, where it was first introduced by Miller in 1752.

T. pendula, the Pendulous or Weeping Arbor Vitæ, has opposite, decussating, spreading, lanceolate, mucronate, keeled, somewhat distant leaves; globose cones; convex smooth scales; filiform pendulous branches. It is a native of Tartary, and is an elegant shrub, but only a few specimens exist at present in this country.

Although the whole of the ceremonial is Hindu, the Thugs themselves, whether Hindu or Mohammedan, maintain that they descend from seven Mohammedan clans, Thugs, Bhys, Bursote, Kachunee, Huttar, Ganoo, and Thundee ( Ramasecana,' p. 11); the seven clans are admitted to be the most antient and the original stock on which all the others have been engrafted. This circumstance may lead us to suspect that Mohammedams were indeed the first to give a sort of political system to the Thugs; and the seven clans of Ismailis, whose occupation was murder as dreadful as that of the Thugs, may, when persecuted in the last days of their political existence, have joined themselves to the Hindu Phânsîgars, and, adopting their ritual, have given rise to their present institution. This point is investigated with much ingenuity in an article on the Secret Societies of Asia,' in the 49th vol. of Blackwood's Magazine' (part civ.). Shah Jehan and Aurengzebe instituted criminal proceedings against them. After this we again lose sight of them until the time of Hyder Ali, who proceeded against them in a summary way. Mysore however seems to have been their favourite residence; for in order to suppress them, in the reign of Tippoo Sultan, many of them were apprehended and sentenced to hard labour, and others suffered mutilation. It was in T. articulata of Desfontaines is now called Callitris Mysore also that the English government first discovered quadrivalvis, four-valved Callitris. The genus Callitris them soon after 1799; but it was not before 1810 that any differs from Thuja in having the scales of the female catmeasures were taken for their extermination; and a plankins, from 4 to 6 in number, opening like the valves of a for their suppression, which promises success, was adopted regular pericarp, and the seeds at the base of these scales in 1830 by the then governor-general, Lord William winged on the margin. The four-valved Callitris has flatBentinck. Since that time their numbers have rapidly tened articulated leaves; the female catkin with four oval diminished, and it is to be hoped that they will soon be pointed valves, two of which have seeds. It is a native of totally extinct. Barbary, and attains a height of from 15 to 20 feet. It was first discovered by Desfontaines on Mount Atlas in 1796. The gum-sandarac of commerce [SANDARAC], according to Broussonet, Brongniart, and others, is the produce of this tree, although it is often ascribed to the Juniperus communis. This substance is brought into the market in tears, which are clear, shining, and diaphanous, and of whitish-yellow colour. When reduced to a fine powder, it makes an excellent pounce. Dissolved in spirits of wine, it forms a delicate varnish. Under the name of alerce, the wood of this tree is in great repute in VOL. XXIV.-3 G

(Ramaseeana, or Vocabulary of the Peculiar Language used by the Thugs, Calcutta, 1836; this work is written by Col. Sleeman; The Confessions of a Thug, by Captain Meadows, 1840, London; Illustrations of the History and Practices of the Thugs, London, 1837.)

THUJA, or THUYA, the name of a genus of plants belonging to the natural order Coniferæ. This name is derived from ew, as, on account of the pleasant odour given out by the wood in burning, it was used in antient sacrifices. The species of the genus are more commonly known by the P. C., No. 1539.