June, and part of July, bring sunny, delightful weather; but the remainder of the season, four days in a week at least, will be rainy at St. Michael's. October brings a change. The winds, usually from the southwest from July to the latter part of September, in October are mostly from the north, and, though cold, bring fine weather. They are interrupted occasionally by gales, the most violent of the season, from the southwest; piling the driftwood upon the shores, where it lies until the succeeding fall, unless carried off by the natives for fuel.

The valley of the Lower Yukon is somewhat foggy in the latter part of the summer; but as we ascend the river the climate improves, and the short summer at Fort Yukon is dry, hot, and pleasant, only varied by an occasional shower.

The climatic law which governs the distribution of trees also seems to limit the wanderings of the aborigines. The Eskimo extend all along the coast and up the principal rivers with the tundra. The Indians populate the interior, but seldom pass the boundary of the woods. Neither perform any agricultural labor whatever, unless we so designate the work of picking wild berries, which form their only vegetable food, excepting the half-digested food of the reindeer; the roots of Hedysarum Mackenzii, the "liquorice root" of the trappers; Polygonum viviparum; a species of Archangelica, or wild parsnip; and the leaf-stalks of a Rumex, or wild rhubarb.

The few Russian settlements in the Yukon territory, pursuant with the charter of the Russian American Company enjoining them to "promote agriculture," were formerly provided with small gardens; but little interest being taken by the officers of the Company in such matters, especially during the last governorship, none of them, during the time of my residence, were cultivated, with the exception of those at St. Michael's and the Mission. These were due to the procuring of seed, through private hands, by the Uprovalísha Sergei Stepanoff and Father Lárriown, the missionary, and not to any assistance from the Company. The employés of the Company had too little energy and knowledge of agriculture to attempt anything of the kind.

The first requisite for habitation, or even exploration, in any country, is timber. With it almost all parts of the Yukon Territory are well supplied. The treeless coasts even of the

Arctic Ocean can hardly be said to be an exception, as they are bountifully supplied with driftwood from the immense supplies brought down by the Yukon, Kuskoqúim, and other rivers, and distributed by the waves and ocean currents.

The largest and most valuable tree found in this district is the white spruce (Abies alba). This beautiful conifer is found over the whole country a short distance inland, but largest and most vigorous in the vicinity of running water. It attains not unfrequently the height of fifty to one hundred feet, with a diameter of over three feet near the butt; but the most common size is thirty or forty feet and twelve to eighteen inches at the butt. The wood is white, close, and straight-grained, easily worked, light, and yet very tough; much more so than the wood of the Oregon pine (Abies Douglasii). For spars it has no superior, but is usually too slender for large masts. It is quite durable. Many houses twenty years old, built of this timber, contained a majority of sound logs; but when used green, without proper seasoning, it will not last over fifteen years. These trees decrease in size, and grow more sparingly near Fort Yukon, but are still large enough for most purposes. The northern limit of this tree, according to Seemann, whose observations were confined to the coast, is 66° 44'; but it is, doubtless, found to the north of that latitude, in the interior, on the banks of some of the northern tributaries of the Yukon. It is abundant at Fort Yukon in lat. 66° 34′ (approximate). The unexplored waters of the Tananah River bring down the largest logs in the spring freshets. The number of these discharged annually at the Yukon-mouth is truly incalculable. The freshet does not last more than three weeks, yet sufficient wood is brought down to supply the shores of the Arctic coast, Bering Sea, and the numerous islands.

Logs of all sizes are cast up in winrows by the October south

westers.

The tree of next importance in the economy of the inhabitants is the birch (Betula glandulosa). This tree rarely grows over eighteen inches in diameter and forty feet high. On one occasion, however, I saw a water-worn log about fifteen feet long, quite decorticated, lying on the river-bank near Nuklukahyét on the Upper Yukon; this log was twenty-four inches in diameter at one end and twenty-eight at the other. This is the only hard

wood tree in the Yukon territory, and everything needing a hard and tough wood is constructed of birch. The black birch is also found there, but does not grow so large. Unfortunately for the rising generation, there are no schoolmasters to make use of its pliable twigs.

Several species of poplar (Populus balsamifera and P. tremuloides) abound, the former along the water-side, and the latter on drier uplands. The first-mentioned species grows to a very large size, frequently two or three feet in diameter and forty to sixty feet high. The timber, however, is of little value, but the extreme softness of the wood is often taken advantage of by the natives with their rude iron or stone axes, to make small boards and other articles for use in their lodges. They also rub up with charcoal the down from the seed-vessels, for tinder.

Willows and alders are the most abundant of trees. All sizes of the former may be found, from the slender variety on the Lower Yukon, which grows seventy or eighty feet high, while only six inches in diameter at the butt, and with a mere wisp of straggling branches at the extreme tip, to the dwarf willows of the Arctic coast, crawling under the moss with a stem no bigger than a leadpencil, and throwing up shoots only a few inches high. "About Norton Sound, willows (Salix speciosa) are abundant. The alder (Alnus viridis) extends as far as Kotzebue, where, in company with willows, it forms a low brushwood. With the Arctic Circle the alder disappears. Willows (S. speciosa, Richardsonii, and villosa) extend their range farther, but are only able for a short distance to keep their ground; at Cape Lisburne (lat. 68° 52') they are, in the most favorable localities, never higher than two feet, while their crooked growth and numerous abortive leaf-buds indicate their struggle for existence." (Seemann.) The above remarks must be understood as applying especially to the coast. A willow measured by the botanists of the Herald was found to be but twenty feet high and five inches in diameter; yet the annual rings showed that the tree had reached the age of eighty years. The Arctic coast is reported by Dr. Seemann to be a vast moorland, whose level is only interrupted by a few promontories and isolated mountains. Willows are almost invariably rotten at the heart, and are only good for fuel.

The inner bark is much used for making twine for nets and seines by the Indian women, and the Eskimo of Bering Strait use willow and alder bark to tan or color their dressed deerskins. It produces a beautiful red brown, somewhat like Russia leather.

The other species rising to the rank of trees in this district are the larch (Larix davurica ?), which is found of small size on rolling prairies, another birch (Betula nana), and several alders (A. viridis, incana, and rubra). A species of pine indigenous in Kamchatka (Pinus cembra) has been erroneously referred to as from Kotzebue Sound. Pinus contorta is found near Fort Selkirk at the junction of the Lewis or Táhco River with the Pelly River. It does not ascend the Yukon any farther northward. The Hudson Bay men at Fort Yukon call the white spruce "pine."

The treeless coasts of the territory, as well as the lowlands of the Yukon, are covered in spring with a most luxuriant growth of grass and flowers. Among the more valuable of these grasses (of which a nearly complete list may be found in the Appendix) is the well-known Kentucky blue-grass (Poa pratensis), which grows luxuriantly as far north as Kotzebue Sound, and perhaps even to Point Barrow. The wood meadow-grass (Poa nemoralis) is also abundant, and furnishes to cattle an agreeable and fattening pasturage. The blue joint-grass (Calamagrostis Canadensis) also reaches the latitude of Kotzebue Sound, and grows on the coast of Norton Sound with a truly surprising luxuriance. It reaches in very favorable situations four or even five feet in height, and averages at least three feet.* Many other grasses enumerated in the list of useful plants grow abundantly, and contribute largely to the whole amount of herbage. Two species of Elymus almost deceive the traveller with the aspect of grain fields, maturing a perceptible kernel, which the field-mice. lay up in store.

Grain has never been sown to any extent in the Yukon Territory. Barley, I was informed, had once or twice been tried at Fort Yukon in small patches, and had succeeded in maturing the grain, though the straw was very short. The experiment was

For the determination of these and other species of plants, I am indebted to the report of Dr. J. T. Rothrock, Professor of Botany in the Agricultural College of Pennsylvania, and late botanist of our Scientific Corps.

never carried any farther, however, the traders being obliged to devote all their energies to the collection of furs. No grain had ever been sown by the Russians at any of the posts.

Turnips and radishes always flourished extremely well at St. Michael's, and the same is said of Nuláto and Fort Yukon. Potatoes succeeded at the latter place, though the tubers were small. They were regularly planted for several years, until the seed was lost by freezing during the winter. At St. Michael's they did not do well.

Salad was successful, but cabbages would not head. The white round turnips grown at St. Michael's from European seed were the best I ever saw anywhere, and very large, some weighing five or six pounds. They were crisp and sweet, though occasionally a very large one would be hollow-hearted. The Russians preserved the tops also in vinegar for winter use.

There appears to be no reason why cattle, with proper winter protection, might not be successfully kept in most parts of the Yukon Territory. Fodder, as previously shown, is abundant.

A bull and cow were once sent to Fort Yukon by the Hudson Bay Company. They did well for some time, but the cow, while grazing on the river-bank, was precipitated upon a rock, by the giving way of the soil, and killed. Due notice was given of the accident, but for several years, in the annual supply of goods for Fort Yukon, the small quantum of butter usually sent was withheld, on the ground that there were "cattle" at that post. Finally, the commander killed the bull, determined if he could not have butter that he would at least have beef!

It must be borne in mind that this trading-post is north of the Arctic Circle, and the most northern point in Alaska inhabited by white men.

There are, as might be supposed, no tree fruits in the Yukon Territory suitable for food. Small fruit abounds in the greatest profusion. Among the various kinds may be noted red and black. currants, gooseberries, cranberries, raspberries, thimbleberries, salmon berries, killikinick berries, blueberries, bearberries, twinberries, dewberries, service berries, mossberries, and roseberries. The latter, the fruit of Rosa cinnamomca, when touched by the frost, form a pleasant addition to the table, not being dry and woolly, as in our climate, but sweet and juicy. All these berries, but espe