where trials and other legal proceedings are pending. In order to provide for this necessity, Congress has enacted that copies of such records, maps and papers belonging to any of the government officers, under the signature of the head of such office, or of its chief clerk, with the seal affixed, shall be as competent evidence in all cases as their original would be.

GREAT SEAL OF THE UNITED STATES.

In chapter XC we have given a number of forms of seals. Over the name of each State we have placed the great seal of that State, or, as it is sometimes called, its coat of arms. These various devices are the mere conceptions of the artist, yet they are emblematic of some political sentiment or of some characteristic of that State.

CHAPTER XLIV.

Bonds.

1. THE vast sums of money annually collected from duties, from the sale of public lands, and from all other sources from which the revenue of the nation is raised; and then the disbursement of the same to the army, to the navy, to the civil officers, and to the various employees of the government, and to the different purposes for which the public money is appropriated, requires a host of officials and agents to transact all this business. Hence the government has collectors of customs, collectors of taxes, postmasters, receivers of money for the sale of public land, and so on; all of whom are receivers of the public money. These pay it into the United States Treasury, from whence it is paid out directly to parties having claims against the government, or to agents who disburse it to those to whom it is due.

By the dishonesty of the officers and agents who receive, hold or disburse these funds, the government would be the loser, and the people would be defrauded of their money. We say the people, because every man who cheats or defrauds the government, cheats and defrauds every man, woman and child in the country. Hence the detestable character of public swindlers and defaulters.

2. But to guard against this as far as possible, the law requires a man when he accepts of one of these offices, to take an oath, or make a solemn affirmation, promising faithfully to perform the duties of the office he enters upon. But even this does not always secure

But in the laws enacted by Congress, we find that not only official oaths are required; but in a great variety of other cases, men who transact business with the government are required to verify their accounts and statements with an oath. This is particularly the case with those who do business with the custom house; such as merchants, shipowners, and masters of vessels. Many oaths must be put in the form of affidavits; that is, the oath must be written and signed by the deponent, that the statements made may be preserved.

4. The form of official oaths varies according to the nature of the duties to be performed by the deponent. The oath must be taken before the officer enters upon his duties. Should he neglect or refuse to do this, his acts will be illegal, and he would make himself liable to punishment.

After the late civil war broke out, Congress for the purpose of preventing those who had voluntarily taken part in the rebellion, from holding thereafter any office under the government, passed an act requiring every one before he could accept any office, either in the civil, military, or naval departments, to take an oath in the following form:

5. I, A. B., do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I have never voluntarily borne arms against the United States, since I have been a citizen thereof; that I have voluntarily given no aid, countenance, counsel or encour agement to persons engaged in armed hostility thereto; that I have neither sought, nor accepted, nor attempted to exercise the functions of any office whatev