CHAMBERS'S

INFORMATION FOR THE
INFORMATION

PEOPLE.

CONDUCTED BY WILLIAM AND ROBERT CHAMBERS, EDITORS OF CHAMBERS'S
EDINBURGH JOURNAL, EDUCATIONAL COURSE, &c.

NUMBER 65.

NEW AND IMPROVED SERIES.

EDUCATION.

PRICE lad.

are mainly dependent, and also the communication of such parts of knowledge as the circumstances and prospects of individuals may render necessary.

within the last few years, the idea commonly entrtained with respect to general elementary education, prehended only certain branches of instruction familiarly known by the terms, reading, writing, and mimetic. A "liberal" education added ancient and modern languages and mathematics. Such formed Te entire round of accomplishments which were suped, with the accident-directed moral training of the mestic circle, to be sufficient to fit the youth, of ven the highest classes, for entering upon the varied eties of life. Nor was this scanty education thought rasite for all. A vast class was allowed to exist about the least tincture of school learning of any ad, as not being supposed to require any knowledge yond that which immediately fitted them for the laboas duties by which they earned their bread. The active period which has elapsed since the conson of the last war (1815), has been distinguished y nothing more than by the enlargement of our ordi- While fully acknowledging the difficulty under which y ideas with respect to education. It may be said every candid writer on education must lie, the present be now universally acknowledged that all-all, from would humbly endeavour to make the nearest approach the peer to the peasant-ought to be educated, how-to a correct system which his views of the natural chaer there may still be differences of opinion as to racter of the human being will admit of. He considers the means of educating, and what education should the race as exhibiting a definite mental constitution, in st of. It is also generally admitted that reading, all its parts harmonising with the surrounding universe. ring, and arithmetic, even when effectually taught, He considers this constitution as embracing a variety stitute but a branch of education, being merely of faculties, for sensation and action, which it is the trumentary accomplishments, the acquirement and business of the educator to awaken, strengthen, and vation of which tend in a certain degree to improve regulate, so that each person may arrive at the best intellect. The study of the ancient classical lan- condition of which his character is susceptible, and ages, while still admitted by candid persons to be most thoroughly fulfil the design of his being in all its a means of improving the intellect, is now no various respects. He views, in the first place, the rupheld, excepting by a few, as the grand instru- faculties of the physical frame as requiring to be duly seat of liberal education, the character in which it was exercised, so as to bring them to the utmost limit of zerally regarded a few years ago. It is now seen their native power and health. Of the mental system, at this study gives to the youth of the middle and he views those faculties which constitute the intellecper classes but a portion, and, in many instances, tual powers as requiring to be drawn out, exercised, te least requisite portion, of what they should know and instructed, so that they may operate readily and entering the world. The old elements of education efficiently for all the various purposes which they ay therefore be said to have sunk from their former are designed to serve; and those, again, which conaracter of all-sufficiency, and to have now taken their stitute the moral feelings as calling for the exertion pace as only parts of a complete education. upon them of all external moral influences at the head of which stands the revealed will of God with regard to human destiny-in order that the best possible state of feeling may be attained with regard both to the affairs of the present and to a future state of existence. Upon these views of man's character a scheme of education may be founded, which rational persons, as yet unprepossessed by other notions, will, he thinks, generally acknowledge as accordant with common sense, however unprepared they may be to trace it to its foundation. He will, therefore, without further preface, proceed to describe such a scheme, adopting the appropriate divisions into physical, moral, and intellectual, and combining, as far as his space permits, practical directions with what may be called the philosophy of the subject.

Before correct views can be entertained with regard to education, or proper steps can be taken for working it out in practice, it is obvious that a distinct notion ought to be attained as to the character of the being to be educated. Man is this being; but the question "what is man?" is one to which science does not yet enable us to give an answer which all would acknowledge as right. For this reason it is totally impossible for any writer to present a theory of education which would be generally received as a perfect science. The subject must needs partake of the obscurity and uncertainty which as yet rest upon at least the mental character of man; and it will only advance in clearness and precision, in proportion as progress is made in a correct system of mental philosophy.

PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION.

The primary meaning of the term educate, from the an educare, to lead or bring out, does not ill express first great principle of the science. It may be held sume that the human being is naturally in a comparatively rude and inert condition, and that external must be applied to draw forth his faculties into their full activity and power, and bring them to their ghest degree of refinement and nicety of application. Tess, in reality, a large part of the business of eduata, taking even the widest view of its purposes. A el definition would further include the regulation and Sipline of those moral feelings on which our actions

Ample provision for such exercises should be made in ail seminaries of education, infant and more advanced. What are strictly called gymnastics, are more violent and trying than any we have mentioned, consisting of carubing poles, leaping bars, swinging by the hands, and maintaining difficult positions. These require much caution in the watchful educator, and should not be allowed in slender and weakly boys. They ought not to be overdone by any youth whatever, seeing that, even in the robust, strains and ruptures have been occasioned by them.

MORAL EDUCATION.

and gentle people. Such a difference, we cannot doubt, would exist even where no attempt had been made by the latter parties to fashion the moral character of the young creature committed to their charge. It is exactly a difference of this nature which exists between the youths native to the vale of the Missouri (or those of the not less savage classes which social circumstances produce in most great cities) and those of civilised countries in general: circumstances decide the one set to be barbarians, and the other to be tolerably wellbehaved persons. This education of circumstances, though so powerful, is unfortunately not always within the command of well-meaning parents. Individuals are here generally able to do little of themselves, if the The training of our moral nature for the due per-persons by whom they are necessarily surrounded be krmance of our part as members of society, is that not of the character that is desirable. Thus, it often branch of education which the great majority of those happens that a poor though well-disposed man, is obliged who have reflected on the subject consider as by far to live in a part of a city where his children can only the most important. It is a great mistake to suppose breathe moral contamination; and we can scarcely that this is a branch which the advocates of improve-imagine a greater hardship. Yet these are just reaments in education have generally overlooked. As far sons why every effort should be made to promote a as we have observed, all but a small sect of this class universal improvement of society; and it must rarely f philanthropists acknowledge its paramountcy. This happen that some arrangements cannot be made, of a is the part of education which, in a national system, character likely to operate favourably on the young would call for the most attention, because, while degrees persons who are the objects of care. of intellectual attainment are proper for different classes men, there is no class of whom it can be said, that A right and perfect moral development is not of the Lumost consequence both to themselves and the society of which they form a part. Beside such a benefit, that of an acquaintance with the mere elements of literature sinks into insignificance. There is no need, Lowever, to exalt any department of education at the expense of another. It may be true, that intellectaal development is not expressly moral development; but it must be clear to every candid person, that the retinement and expansion of mind obtained from intelcctual culture, are favourable to the moral nature. thanking man is not on that account likely to be the less a virtuous man; else, much of our common observatons of life must be a delusion. We would therefore way, let no department of education be considered as ling for exclusive or disproportionate cultivation; but let all go on in harmony together.

A

Moral education can have no definition from us but the development and regimen of the moral nature of those who are to be educated. Of the perplexity which attends this part of our being, it is unnecessary speak. Let us only see if we can settle upon any rinciples by which it may be beneficially affected. It pears to include a variety of native feelings, of various rength and tendency to activity in every different erson, yet all of them liable to be acted upon by apropriate external means, to good as well as to evil. La mind totally untrained, the good dispositions are without some energy; but, generally, where there 1 want of regulation of the feelings, and of certain ciples to which the character of emotions and acas may be referred as to a standard, the moral being a scene of deplorable confusion-the more so, of arse, in instances where there is a considerable atural endowment of the inferior feelings. We have ten the coarse, sensual, and selfish conduct which has the mark of the rude throughout all ages. On the ther hand, we cannot doubt that many natures, not rignally of a high cast, thrown under influences which Proded to check the less worthy tendencies, to strengthen as good, and to induce regularity over all, must have en thereby enabled to pass through life in a creditable Baer, if not with some higher result less open to vinervation.

One principle thus strikes us at the outset as of very Creat consequence, namely, the circumstances, or, so to ak, the moral atmosphere, in which the being to be cated is placed. It is but matter of every-day obTation, that a child reared amidst gross scenes, where to restraint is imposed upon any of the feelings by Le around him, will prove, in all likelihood, a very rent being from one brought up amidst virtuous

We would here impress the importance of removing temptation as much as possible out of the way of young persons. There is a notion amongst some, that a little temptation is not amiss, as a means of training the young to withstand greater assaults. But this is, we are convinced, an ill-founded doctrine, and most fatal policy. It is of the nature of every one of our feelings to be awakened into activity by the presentation of its appropriate object; and it is the equally natural result, that the frequent activity promotes the power and the tendency to activity of those feelings. By presenting, then, what are called temptations, we are taking a direct means of educating and strengthening the inclinations towards error. On the contrary, a feeling, allowed to lie dormant, loses in power, and becomes always less and less liable to act. There is perhaps a confusion of ideas at the bottom of the objectionable theory. The true plan seems to be to remove all actual temptation, but to give the intellect and the moral feelings proper warning against all such dangers, and thus prepare them for resistance when the time of unavoidable trial arrives. We would say, then, do not allow the young to see or touch evil things, or even to be in company where such things are to be spoken lightly of, from an idea that they are thus to be hardened against temptation. Be content to inspire a salutary horror of such things by your own report, if you only are so fortunate as to be able to keep your young charge exempt from positive contact with what is discommendable. An error may of course be committed in speaking too strongly against what you disapprove of, in which case, the young person no sooner discovers the exaggeration, than, from a principle of contradiction, he is inclined to embrace the vice. But discretion will save from this mistake. Upon the whole, it may be set down as a most important rule in education, to reduce temptation to the smallest possible bounds.

Nearly connected with the education of circumstances is the education of example. Here personal conduct in the educating party is all in all. Children are remarkably disposed to imitation. They imitate instinctively, without having necessarily any discrimination of the character of the act which they are imitating. The general nature of their conduct is therefore ruled very much by the nature of the conduct presented to their observation. So much is this the case, that, if a child be carefully watched, he will be observed to contract a tendency to scolding and beating, from that very discipline by which, most erroneously, an endeavour is made to correct his errors. It must obviously, then, be of the greatest importance that the demeanour and general actions of the educator, and of the family in which a child is reared, should be models of all that is proper. Just the more amiable and correct in all

respects that this conduct is, so will the young be the opposive feelings might have only presented resistance more likely to form those habits which their best friends and defiance. At some schools, including those for could wish. We will not pause to consider the effect infants, it has been found possible to impress such which a positively vicious course of life is calculated to lessons by means of a kind of trial, the school-fellons have on such of the young as witness it. The kind of being the jury. The case is stated to the assembled bad example which we have here a chance of helping children: they are asked to say if such conduct is right to abolish, is that which shows itself in acts far within or wrong. They invariably give a sound decision, and the circle of positive vice. Such are the use of offensive the effect is most powerful. Obdurate natures, to and uncivil language, wranglings, domineering, low and which a reprimand from master or parent would at sordid habits of all kinds. If parents and the other the moment be as nothing or worse, are found unable to grown-up members of a family do not restrain them-resist the force of the public opinion of their own society selves from all such acts in the presence of children, there cannot be a doubt that the children will likewise be addicted to them. It may be a somewhat startling doctrine, but we nevertheless declare our full conviction that there is not the least need for ever using, in the presence of or towards children, any language which might not be addressed by a well-bred person to a perfect equal. All ordering, dragooning, scolding, and, much more, all violence, exerted for the purpose of managing or punishing a child, are unmitigated errors and evils. A child has feelings to be wounded and roused up into contradiction by harsh usage, as well as any grown-up person; and it is well known that such means are not serviceable for gaining any end with our fellow-creatures. A civil request, if reasonable, will succeed with a child as with a man. Gentle and respectful language gain as much upon an uncorrupted child's nature as upon a man's. Such treatment can have no chance of spoiling a young person: it will only promote his being made a rational well-bred being, instead of a wrangler or tyrant.

as is every day found to be the case with grown-up people, such being, in fact, a law of human nature. Circumstances, example, precept, are all inferior in effect to Training, which is more particularly the novel feature of modern education. This principle may be said to have its natural basis in the law of habit. It is indicated in the text, "Train up a child in the way he should go, and when he is old he will not depart from it," and in the maxim, "Just as the twig is bent, the tree is inclined." We are so constituted, that, when accustomed to do any thing, we do it almost without the governance of our will or judgment. We do it easily, and generally well. If accustomed, for instance to a particular class of intellectual operations, we ac quire a facility in going through them which generally strikes others with wonder. If accustomed to the ex ercise of a particular class of feelings, be they good o bad, they in time awake in us unprompted, and we be come their almost passive instruments. To habituate the feelings to the exercise and regulation which i productive of the best results, is moral training.

The preceptive part of moral education, though the The feelings are of very various character. Proceed lowest in power, is not to be overlooked. A good ing upon Dr Gall's description of them, which seems t maxim or a sound advice, well-timed, and made tho- us to be the best, we find the first class described a roughly intelligible and thoroughly acceptable, will selfish, yet necessary for the preservation of the indivi rarely fail to have a good effect. Even supposing it dual and the species; others directed to objects apar to be little regarded at the time, it may remain in the from self, yet as liable also to misdirection and abus memory, and come into play on some future occasion, It is altogether a strangely mingled web, yet not with when perhaps more necessary than now. In such out a certain definiteness of constitutional arrangemer moral seeds, there is a vitality like that of the seeds of and of purpose. Here it may be at once admitted, as plants, which may have been buried too deep for ger- fact not less clear from philosophical inquiry than fro mination for thousands of years, and yet, when placed in revelation, that perfection in the complicated operation the proper circumstances, visited by sap and heat, will of our moral nature is not to be looked for. But it send up as goodly specimens of their kind as if they had equally certain that there are influences which may a been shed from a parent stem of last year's growth. It advantageously in regulating, directing, and harmon will therefore be proper, from time to time, to inculcate ing these operations. moral lessons, appropriate to the capacity of the child. The selfish or lower feelings are the first in the in This may be done directly, by giving good maxims to vidual to call for attention, and they may therefore be learned by heart; but it will be done better by first treated in this place. That early developed instin means of narratives showing the virtues in action. which regards food, is so liable to be over-indulged This is because a child much more readily apprehends a mistaken kindness, that we feel particularly cal a series of incidents than an abstract truth. It will upon to give a warning with regard to it. The un also be well to allow the simple narration, in the first voidable effect of such over-indulgence is to produ place, to be received into his mind, and then to allow pampering and fastidious habits, equally degrading himself, if possible, to make out the moral. Call his the moral as they are dangerous to the physical syste own moral feelings, as far as may be, into judgment The food of the young should never be otherwise the upon the case, and only tell him whether he is right or simple, if we were merely to regard their health; wrong, till he fully comprehends it in all its bearings. more should it be so, if we would preserve in the Thus his own good feelings, as well as his judgment, manly and hardy habits. On the rare occasions wi are brought into exercise, and thus a far deeper im- a little treat is afforded, care should of course be tak pression is made than if the whole case, including the that it is of a nature in all respects harmless. Com moral, were merely related to him. (8)* It is a duty of should be few and far between, if ever given at all; a preceptive education to warn against and check evil, as rewards and punishments should never have referen well as to inculcate good. When any thing wrong is to edible things. As to liquor of any kind, such done, we but imperfectly correct it by saying, "Don't men are themselves but too much accustomed to do that," or inflicting censure or punishment. It is dulge in, certainly one drop should never enter necessary that we should convince the understanding lips of a young person on any pretext whatev and move the feelings of the child to a sense of the im- There are few sights more distressing to a reflect propriety of his conduct. This may be done by mild mind, than that of parents handing the so fatal wi argument and illustration, calling upon himself ulti-cup to their children. The quantity of food given mately to say whether such conduct is commendable the young should never be stinted from penurious or not, and whether it ought to be repeated or avoided. ascetic motives; but it is very certain that great err He thus becomes judge upon his own case, and is forced are committed in giving too much and too frequen to condemn himself, where, if condemned by others, his Eating is altogether much a matter of habit, and t with regard to quantity as well as quality. The amo actually required for the efficient support of the syst is, under natural circumstances, not great: it is ge rally much exceeded. There is therefore room

*The Moral Class-Book, here referred to, supplies a variety of narratives showing the virtues in action, together with a selection of moral maxims from Scripture and other sources.

judicious restriction, within the range of common practice. It is but a result of the general law, that a stematic moderation at this period of life will lead to an easily maintained temperance in future days, and thus be productive of the greatest blessings.

truth, if such expedient seem calculated to save them any harm or inconvenience. It is only when the greater evil of lying is thoroughly understood, that this tendency ceases. It becomes, therefore, of great consequence to check the first instances that are observed in the young of a disposition to conceal the truth for selfish or base purposes, and to seek to establish principles and habits of a contrary character. For this end nothing is so necessary as a mild and just treatment of children under all circumstances, seeing that when severity or injustice is to be apprehended, a direct and far too great temptation is given for secretive conduct.

The combative and destructive dispositions of children are also early manifested. The great activity of these faculties in boys is particularly remarkable, being shown as much in a wild spirit of adventure, for Laccent objects, but often leading into danger, as in direct form of violence. The superabundant vitaty of this period of life seems to be a cause, or at rast a necessary accompaniment, of the energy of Les faculties. No peril intimidates; little compune- It is difficult to legislate between the evils of blabta is felt in dealing with either man or beast. In bing, and the equally notorious evils of a habitual system this there is no doubt a good end in view; but it of conspiring for the concealment of truths which conall remains for the educator to regulate these dis- scientiousness would direct being told. There can be sations. The contendative spirit may be directed to little doubt that the "don't tell" practices of the nurLe overcoming of difficult tasks, the taking of ener-sery and school are calculated to implant and foster the pc exercise, and the visiting of places and objects seeds of disingenuousness in the youthful mind. Yet e examination of which may be useful. The other it is not less true, that to encourage a tale-bearing ang, instead of being allowed to show itself in rage, habit would be destructive to all manly and honourable on, and resentment, to inflict pain on harmless feeling. Here caution, judgment, and a careful discrianals, to torture or oppress companions, or take mination of cases, must be the chief guides of the eduSight in defacing and destroying inanimate and per- cator. We would, for our part, deem it a duty to lean 44 ornamental or useful objects, may be trained to as much as possible to the principle of having the truth rve actual manifestations of its energy for objects told at all hazards. The educator may do much by a arly noxious. It is to be lamented that education, rigid system of inspection, and omitting no opportunity beretofore and still in many places conducted, rather of breaking up all confederacies against the truth. As is to foster than to regulate or moderate this pro- he never will allow shirking, if he can help it, so also ty. The old notion that to be able to fight is he will never, on his own part, be guilty of the meanential to a youth, still, we fear, in some measure ness of winking. The more open and candid his own directors of education, at least so far as to conduct in all his relations towards his pupils, the better uce their taking little pains to prevent scenes of will it be for them. There exists a school on improved rage where only youthful good humour and kind- principles, where the most lively mutual confidence should prevail. The oppressive system of fag-exists between the masters and their pupils, and on ag is also still, to the disgrace of our age, allowed the part of the pupils towards each other, with the best e of our public seminaries. It is well, no doubt, effects on all hands. Honour is thus so habitually be who is to find life a thorny and difficult path, observed, that the desks containing the little property, id not enter it with too gentle or timid disposi- letters, &c., of the pupils need no locks. There is but surely it is not impossible to draw a distinc- much evil in families from children being brought up between quarrels, blows, and tyranny, and the in non-confidential habits with their parents and with uragement of a spirit sufficiently manly and ener- each other. The family parlour and table should be a for all the common needs of our life. scene where all can unfold their ordinary thoughts, without fear of censure or ridicule. It is the best means of ensuring that the young people will act with the concurrence of their parents, when they come to take any of the more serious steps of life.

e first object of the educator with regard to these gs, ought to be to impress the lesson that their rese is good or bad just as they have good or bjects in view-that they must, in all cases, be Be the guidance of the moral sentiments and judg- The acquisitive feeling requires much more educaThe pupils should be trained to check every tional care than it has usually received. We need of these feelings which they are conscious has not detain the reader with an exposition of the legitigitimate object in view, and only to allow them mate use of this faculty, which prompts man to accufreedom when careful reflection has satisfied them mulate or store up the goods of life, for regular such a course is entitled to the entire sanction of instead of precarious use. To this impulse capital oral law. Particular regard should be paid to owes its existence, without which there could be no appression of the spirit of wanton cruelty, of civilisation. The Author of our being has stamped of revenge, of uncharitableness. And one importance on this faculty, by the strength of the protant means of working out these ends will be to pensity. None more requires modification, regulation, no example of harshness, cruelty, or quarrel- and right direction. It is often too strong for con, ever to appear before the eyes of the young. scientiousness, and is the source of by far the largest very desirable that those who conduct schools in amount of crime. But, besides this, it is even with the the children of the humbler classes are educated, honest too much manifested in abuse. Its objects are address themselves particularly to the formation made the paramount pursuit of life, and in its intense abite favourable to humanity. Large sections of selfishness it withers to dust every generous and kindly Lumbler classes, particularly those who have any feeling of the heart. In a commercial country, like our to do with animals, are habitually cruel. Much own, it deeply degrades a large proportion of the combe done to mitigate this distressing characte-munity, and leads to much individual and social sufferby carefully impressing at school the wicked-ing. involved in every description of cruelty to ani

secretive disposition calls for a large share of tion from those who would bring up a child well. a tendency of our nature appears to have a legitiasperation in dictating such a reserve as may be ry for the restraint of our ordinary feelings, where their expression would be disagreeable or mis"; but it is liable to great abuse, and particumongst the young. The first impulse of all Arusted minds, young and old, is to conceal the

These evils are the consequences of the natural strength of this feeling, the absence of regulating education, and the presence of positive mis-education. Selfish and exclusive appropriation of desirable things, either to eat or hoard, is a lesson taught the youngest, both by precept and example; and there is none more easily learned. Here bribery operates, till infant morality becomes mere matter of barter, and good conduct and attentive study are estimated by the infant merchant by what they will bring. Perhaps we err in so soon introducing children to the use of money;