events came in disjointed scraps months old before they were received. If an accident happened to machinery, a year might go by before new machinery or requisites came to hand. There was not even a "young reporter," and compositors were few; ink, even, was hard to come by, and the paper supply was a constant difficulty, yet in spite of all they "got the paper out," a few days or weeks late, it may be, and in varying size and colour, yet with marvellous regularity considering all things.

New South Wales.-The first Australian newspaper appeared in 1803, fifteen years after the settlement of New South Wales. A printing press was taken out by the first fleet in 1788, but as no one was able to manage type and press, it was not used in Governor Phillip's time. During Captain Hunter's governorship, a man was found able to print Government orders and proclamations; but it was left for Governor King to institute the first newspaper. In a letter to Lord Hobart, dated May 9th, 1803, he wrote:-"It being desirable that the settlers and inhabitants at large should be benefited by useful information being distributed amongst them, I consider that a weekly publication would greatly facilitate that design; for which purpose I gave permission to an ingenious man, who manages the Government printing press, to collect materials weekly, which, being inspected by an officer, is published in the form of a weekly newspaper, copies of which, as far as they have been published, I have the honour to enclose. . . . To the list of wants, I have added a new fount of letters which may be procured for eight or ten pounds, sufficient for our purpose, if approved."

The first number of the " Sydney Gazette and New South Wales Advertiser," the earliest Australian paper, was printed on 5th March, 1803, a four-page paper, of foolscap size, three columns to a page. At the head of the first page, beneath the name, was a rough woodcut representing an allegorical female figure seated on a wool bale by the sea shore; on the sea was a ship flying a Union Jack as large as the mainsail; Government House, a fort, a windmill, and a farmer with a plough, took up the middle distance, while picks and shovels figured in the foreground, and round the whole ran the motto :-" Thus we hope to prosper." The contents included Government orders and official advertisements. Ship news took up about one column, an account of a fire another, agricultural notes on the proper method of clearing land, and the advantages of keeping a pig, (doubtless the useful information alluded to by the Governor), one and two-thirds, while extracts from English papers and local news filled up the rest of the paper. The whole was "printed by authority,” by George Howe. Howe was a creole, born at St. Kitts in the West Indies, where his father was a printer; he had also worked at his trade in London. He arrived in Australia in 1800. Printer, editor, and business manager, Howe had to face and overcome many difficulties in bringing out his paper. The paper supply was to him as to all early Australian

printers a source of constant anxiety. Frequent appeals for paper appear in the advertisement columns of the "Gazette "-" even so small a quantity as a ream will be treated for," says one announcement. Rough sugar paper had to be used more than once. In 1809 the editor remarked :-" A paper in England under 700 is a sensibly losing concern, what must be a paper here with half the number and half of that unpaid for?" This gives some idea of the circulation of the paper, while a public order promulgated by Lieut.-Governor Foveaux gives a glimpse into the state of trade at that time. It was published in December, 1809. "It having been represented that in consequence of numerous sums being in arrears to the publisher of 'The Sydney Gazette and New South Wales Advertiser' the publication thereof is endangered unless those arrears be immediately paid off, His Honour the Lieutenant Governor is pleased to direct that the stores at the various settlements be always open for the receipt of grain to the amount of sums due upon that account. As it is His Honour's wish to strengthen as much as possible the prospect of its uninterrupted continuance, he is further pleased to recommend punctuality in the discharge of subscriptions, &c." Notwithstanding His Honour's recommendation, subscriptions in arrears, scarcity of paper, and other drawbacks made the life of the "Father of the Australian Press," by no means an easy one. George Howe conducted the "Gazette" till his death in 1821, when he was succeeded by his son Robert. The first newspaper office was a small room at Government House. The "Gazette" appeared for five weeks on Saturday, then for a while on Sunday. It was a weekly paper till 1825, then bi-weekly till 1827, daily for a short time, then tri-weekly till 1842, when it ceased.

Meanwhile there had been other journals in the field. Three newspapers had been started in Tasmania-the Derwent Star," in 1810, the "Van Diemen's Land Gazette," in 1813, and the "Hobart Town Gazette," in 1816. The second paper printed in New South Wales was the "Australian," managed by William Charles Wentworth, and Dr. Wardell, an English barrister. This paper, which appeared in 1824, introduced political discussion, naturally absent from journals published under the protection and supervision of the Government, and became "the organ of grievances and rights, wishes and wants." Liberty of the press was granted by Sir Thomas Brisbane in 1824, and the new paper was not slow in taking advantage of the opportunity for free expression of opinion.

The "Monitor," conducted by Edwin Smith Hall, which was started in 1826, also took the opposition side. In 1827 the severe punishment of two soldiers, one of whom died in consequence, called forth warm protest, and a newspaper war; the "Gazette" supporting General Darling, the “ Australian" and the "Monitor" taking the other side and attacking the governor and his friends. Darling decided to

make the publication of newspapers illegal unless they possessed a licence, to be renewed each year (at the governor's pleasure), and to impose a heavy stamp duty on each copy published. Mr. Forbes, the Chief Justice, opposed the measure, refusing to certify "an act which made licences resumable at His Excellency's pleasure." The Governor rejoined, "The safety of the colony is endangered by the present licentiousness of the Press, and it would be inconsistent with my duty to await the result of a reference to His Majesty's Government." He transmitted the bills to be signed, urging that Judge Peddar of Van Diemen's Land had sanctioned a much more stringent measure. The Chief Justice still held out. "The Laws of England," he said, "have been declared sufficient to restrain the licentiousness of the Press by the most eminent judges in England; they have proved themselves sufficient on the most alarming occasions . . . Your Excellency is perfectly aware that up to this moment there has not been a solitary instance of prosecution for libel by the Attorney-General, although the safety of the colony is said to be endangered by the licentiousness of the Press." Failing to get the Licensing Act certified, Darling brought forward the stamp duty, sending the bill to the Chief Justice with the amount unstated. Forbes certified that a stamp duty was in accordance with English law, and a meeting of council was held, the blank being filled in with "fourpence." The Chief Justice wrote to Lord Bathurst explaining his action, and the reply showed that legal authorities upheld him. A long controversy ended in the abandonment of the tax. Governor Darling then brought the libel laws into energetic action. The publishers of the two the opposition papers were prosecuted both civilly and criminally. Mr. Hall, editor of the "Monitor" being convicted of no less than seven offences against the libel law, was fined many hundreds of pounds, and received an aggregate sentence of upwards of three years' imprisonment. The publisher of the "Australian," Mr. E. S. Hayes, was convicted of a libel upon the Governor in accusing him of having substituted his own will for the law in the case of Sudds (the soldier who died under correction) and was sentenced to a fine of £100 and six months' imprisonment. Others were dealt with as severely, the cases being tried by military juries nominated by the Governor. There were so many prosecutions for libel during 1828 and 1829 that the court was occupied with them during the principal part of its sittings. Mr. Hall had been in prison for some months when he was released at the accession of William IV.

Other papers which appeared in these stormy times were "Howe's Weekly Commercial Register," published at the "Gazette" office, of which about twenty-five numbers appeared; the "Gleaner," edited by Dr. Halloran, which came out weekly from April to October, 1827, and the "Blossom," which does not seem to have long survived.

On April 18th, 1831, there appeared the "Sydney Herald," which still exists under the name of the

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Sydney Morning Herald." A number of other journals, some of them short-lived, were founded in the thirties and forties. Amongst them may be mentioned "The Colonist," started in 1835, and conducted by Dr. Lang, whose trenchant writing often led to libel trials; the "Weekly Register," 1845-46; the "Shipping Gazette," 1843-60; the " Atlas," 1844 (noted for its bold opposition to Sir George Gipps); "Bell's Life in Sydney," 1845; "Heads of the People," 1847-49; The People's Advocate," 1848; "The Empire," 1852, conducted till 1858 by Sir (then Mr.) Henry Parkes. Discontinued for a while that year, it was revived in 1859 under the proprietorship of Messrs. Hanson and Bennet, being merged in the "Evening News" in 1874—that paper having been started by Mr. Bennet in 1867. It is out of the question to give a list of papers of later date, but a few may be mentioned:-The " Illustrated Sydney News" appeared in 1853; the "Echo" (an evening paper) in 1875.

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The oldest existing paper in Australia is the "Sydney Morning Herald," which, as already stated, was founded in 1831, as the "Sydney Herald," and was published by Messrs. Ward Stevens, Frederick Michael Stokes, and William M'Garvie. At first a weekly, in 1833 it was issued twice a week, on Mondays and Thursdays; in 1837 three times, appearing on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays; while in 1840 it became a daily. On February 8th, 1841, the name of Fairfax, now so closely connected with it, first appeared on the imprint of the paper. On August 1st, 1842, it assumed its present name-the " Sydney Morning Herald." The paper was purchased in 1841 by Mr. John Fairfax and Mr. Charles Kemp. The partnership lasted till 1853, when Mr. Fairfax bought Mr. Kemp's interest, and became sole proprietor of the Herald." A little later he took his eldest son, Mr. Charles John Fairfax, into partnership, and, in 1857, his second son, Mr. James R. Fairfax. These had served their apprenticeship in the "Herald" office, acquiring a full knowledge of the details of the workings of the paper. On the death of Mr. C. J. Fairfax, another brother, Mr. E. Ross Fairfax, was taken into partnership, but subsequently retired. Later on Mr. C. B. Fairfax, son of Mr. J. R. Fairfax, became a member of the firm. Mr. John Fairfax remained head of the firm till his death in 1877, when he was succeeded by Mr. (now Sir) James R. Fairfax, who still conducts it in partnership with several of his sons. Meanwhile the paper had been growing. It had been brought through difficult times by sheer energy and hard work. five years the results were doubtful, but the early fifties saw the journal firmly established, having surmounted its own difficulties, and survived many of its contemporaries. Till 1856 the "Herald" office was in Lower George-street. The move to the corner of Pitt and George streets was then made. It was on a

For

Saturday, and on the Sunday morning, as it happened, there came the news of the proclamation of peace at the end of the Crimean war. The news was set up by Messrs. C. and J. R. Fairfax, strips were printed on a galley-press, and taken by the two lads to the churches where evening service was being conducted. The news of the proclamation of peace was read to the congregations and the National Anthem sung. In 1853, the Rev. John West became editor of the "Sydney Morning Herald." He held the post till his death in 1873, when he was succeeded by Dr. Andrew Garran, who was followed in 1885 by Mr. W. Curnow, who has since died. The " Sydney Morning Herald" has always been a free trade paper, has championed the spread of popular education, but, true to its early motto, Sworn to no master, of no creed am I," it has never been a "party" organ. Printed at first on an Albion hand-press, which was superseded in 1856 by a four feeder Cowper machine, the "Herald" has from time to time made such changes as were necessary to keep the mechanical department up to date. In 1893, two double insetting machines, working at the rate of from 18,000 to 20,000 an hour were introduced. The "Herald" boasts that it is as large as the biggest English paper, and contains even more matter.

The "Sydney Daily Telegraph" was founded July 1st, 1879, by a syndicate including Mr. Watkin Wynne, sub-editor of the Melbourne Daily Telegraph," and Mr. Angus Mackey, manager and proprietor of the "Bendigo Advertiser." Mr. J. R. Carey, Mr. J. J. Casey, and Mr. Robert Sands were directors. Mr. Lynce was the first editor. In June, 1883, Mr. Mackey retired from the management and Mr. Wynne became general manager. On January 1st, 1884, the paper was taken over by a company consisting of the original proprietors and some others, Messrs. Carey, Sands, H. Gorman, George Pile and J. S. Robertson being directors. Mr. Ward and Mr. Briant of the "Sydney Mail" and "Echo" (now a member of the staff of the London "Daily Chronicle") became editor-in-chief and news editor, and the paper was reorganised throughout, short paragraphs taking the place of solid columns of reading matter. Liberal, not to say Radical, in politics, the "Telegraph" was a sup porter of trades unionism till 1890, when the shipping strike showed the aggressive features of the new unionism, which the "Telegraph" strongly opposed.

Tasmania.-In the same year that the " Sydney Gazette" appeared, Tasmania, or as it was then called Van Diemen's Land, was colonised, the settlement being hastened for fear of French occupation. In the "Sydney Gazette" of June 12th, 1803, there is an account of the departure of the Lady Nelson for Van Diemen's Land with a small party of convicts under Lieutenant Brown. They attempted to establish themselves on the banks of the Derwent but met with fierce opposition from the natives. In 1804 Colonel Collins, who had failed to form a settlement at Port Phillipe removed to Van Diemen's Land, going

Taking

further up the river than the first arrivals. Lieutenant Bowen's party with him he formed a settlement at Hobart Town, where the combined forces could better hold their own against the natives.

Lieutenant-Governor Collins had brought out a press and type with which Government orders were printed at first, we are told, "under a tree in the woods." In 1810 the first Tasmanian newspaper "The Derwent Star and Van Diemen's Land Intelligencer" appeared. It was published "by authority," edited by G. P. Harris, Deputy-SurveyorGeneral, and printed by J. Barnes and G. Clarke at the Government Press, the first number being dated January 8th, 1810. The "Sydney Gazette" of September 1st, 1810, described the "Star" as a "neat publication published every fortnight on a quarto size." The price was 2s. a copy. There was little scope for a paper, the settlers were not literary, events were few, and politics naturally a forbidden subject, so the Star" fell baek on anecdotes with which to fill up its by no means extensive space-two pages about one foot square, two columns to a page. Type does not seem to have been plentiful; on one occasion the printer stated that owing to lack of type "several interesting extracts" were perforce held over. No. 7 told of the death of Lieutenant-Governor Collins, and only two more numbers (nine in all) appeared.

In 1814 a second attempt to found a paper was made, this was the "Van Diemen's Land Gazette and General Advertiser." The first number was dated From May 14 to May 21; No. 2, "From May 21 to June 4." It was published under authority and printed by G. Clarke. The last number appeared on September 24.

In 1816 a third paper made its appearance, "The Hobart Town Gazette and Southern Reporter." This was also "Published by authority." It came out in manuscript for the first few numbers, No. 4 being the first printed copy. The printer was Andrew Bent, who had been Clarke's assistant. From the complaints that appeared from time to time in the columns of the Gazette," it would seem that the typographical part of the work was carried on under difficulties. There are promises of enlargement when a new fount of type came to hand; the paper came out a little later in the glory of new type, only to revert for some reason to MS. for a while; at other times lack of lower case led to the occasional use of capital letters in the middle of words. Being "Published under authority" involved vigorous censorship, as may be seen from the following, which appeared at the end of the second page of the "Gazette " for September 6, 1817:-"The District General Muster occasioned the absence of all from the secretary's office before this page was set; hence the horrid stuff to be found in it." The arrival of a new press and extra type enabled the "Gazette" to come out as a four-page paper in 1823, and it was again enlarged in the following year. In 1825, the printer gave the follow

Few, except

ing account of his past difficulties :ourselves, can comprehend even a tithe of the difficulties which, ten years ago, we had to grapple with, our type was so limited that we could not compose, at once, more than is contained in one of our present columns. There was no printing ink in the colony but what we were necessitated to manufacture in the best possible manner for ourselves, and common Chinese paper (no more than half the size of foolscap, and of which two sheets were consequently obliged to be pasted together for each 'Gazette') cost two guineas sterling per ream." Non-payment of subscriptions was a constant source of aggravation, but worse troubles were in store for Mr. Bent and other Tasmanian printers. Mr. Emmet, the first editor of the "Hobart Town Gazette," had found safety in articles described as "brief, mild, and complimentary," but, when in 1824, the "Gazette" was no longer under Government control, and the editorial chair was filled by Mr. Evan Henry Thomas, a more vigorous policy was adopted. Mr. R. L. Murray, under the signature of "A Colonist," wrote a series of letters which were supposed to approach the style of "Junius," but unfortunately offended Colonel Arthur, whose administration had been severely criticised throughout. One of the letters took up three columns of small print. In August, Bent was tried before a military jury, and found guilty of libel, the writer of the letters being called as a witness against him. Nor did his troubles end here. Mr. Bent was obliged to give up the title of the "Hobart Town Gazette," as this had been adopted by the new Government paper; he therefore changed the name of his journal to the " Colonial Times." The "Times" was not fated to lead an untroubled existence. In 1827 "An Act to regulate the Printing and Publishing of Newspapers, &c.," was passed requiring the printers to obtain a licence, which was held practically at the Governor's pleasure, authorised a tax of 3d. each and took securities for penalties. Being in danger of a heavy fine for printing the paper without a licence, Bent hit on the expedient of bringing out the "Colonial Times" with the news column blank. This was continued for over three months. Meanwhile, the unlucky printer applied for leave to conduct a paper, having his sureties ready, but the licence was refused, first to Bent, afterwards to Mr. James Austin, to whom it had been handed over, the reason given being that Bent was to have been employed as a printer. While in prison he started the "Colonial Advocate," which was also suppressed. In 1829 the British Ministry repealed the Licence Act, but the unfortunate printer never recouped himself for his losses, and passed his old age in poverty. Others suffered, too-Mr. Henry Melville was fined £200 and imprisoned for twelve months, and Mr. Gilbert Robertson, editor of the "Colonial Times" and the "True Colonist," was also fined and imprisoned.

In 1825, George Howe, the son of the printer of the "Sydney Gazette," started the "Tasmanian" in

Launceston. It was removed to Hobart Town. There, together with Mr. Ross, he became printer of the "Government Gazette." "In necessary things Unity; in non-essentials Liberty; in all things Charity," was the motto of the "Tasmanian," which tried to steer a middle course between the Government paper and Bent's paper, the "Colonial Times." In August, 1827, the Tasmanian" passed into the hands of John Campbell Macdougal. "Murray's Austral Asiatic Review" was announced to appear in 1829, but was amalgamated with the already existing paper, which came out under the new title of "The Tasmanian and Austral Asiatic Review." "There are now three weekly papers in this little island," wrote the editor, "and we believe a fourth is about to come into existence in Launceston." The price of the " Tasmanian" was is. Under R. L. Murray and J. C. Macdougal it continued till 1831, then, edited and published by Murray, it appeared on Saturdays as the "Tasmanian and Southern Literary and Political Journal."

The "Launceston Advertiser" was started in 1829 by John Pascoe Fawkner, a hotel-keeper, selfeducated but enterprising, who, later on, played a part in connection with Press and politics in Victoria. "Harmony" was the motto chosen by the new paper, the editor feeling it his duty "rather to promote goodwill and fellowship than to fan the flame of animosity." In March, Mr. Fawkner, together with other printers, had to appear before the Chief Justice "in order to enter into sureties to the amount of £800 by himself and two bondsmen; himself £400 and his sureties £200 each in case he should be convicted of any seditious or blasphemous libel that himself or them should pay that amount if cast.” Mr. Fawkner sold the paper to Mr. Dowling, who conducted it well till 1835.

Another paper which appeared in Launceston at the same time as the "Advertiser" was the "Cornwall Press," which was established by Mr. G. Dowsett in April, 1829, and was conducted by him with more vigour than grace. After about twenty numbers the Press" ceased, giving place to the "Cornwall Chronicle," of which Mr. William Mann was the proprietor. The "Chronicle" opposed the "Advertiser," and advocated transportation.

The True Colonist, Despatch and Commercial Advertiser," founded in 1833, was published daily during 1835; the editor, Mr. Gilbert Robinson, made its columns interesting by publishing heroically candid criticisms of the Government. No charges were too severe to be heaped upon the Governor and the Administration, not even felony.

The "Launceston Examiner," the oldest existing Tasmanian paper (one of the oldest in the Commonwealth), was first published on March 12th, 1842, in the form of an eight page demy folio, appearing on Saturday afternoons. It vigorously supported political freedom, religious liberty, and anti-transportation, and it played no small part in the Tasmanian history which it helped to make. Six months

after its first publication it became a bi-weekly, and in 1853 its size was enlarged to a double demy sheet of four pages, and it was then issued three times a week. In 1877 the "Examiner" became a daily paper, and at the close of 1881 it was again enlarged. The name of James Aikenhead appeared on the imprint as the first printer and publisher of the "Examiner;" he was also the editor, being assisted by the Rev. John West. In the course of a few months Mr. Jonathan S. Waddle, a practical printer, became a partner and assumed business charge of the paper, and on his death his place was taken by his nephew, Mr. Henry Button, who had served his apprenticeship in the office, which he entered in 1875. Later on Mr. James Aikenhead retired in favour of his son, Mr. William Aikenhead, who, in 1887, disposed of his interest to his partner, Mr. Henry Button. For many years the editorial duties were undertaken by the proprietors, but as business grew and more oversight was necessary, Mr. William Horne was appointed editor. He was succeeded in turn by Messrs. T. S. Carey, Ronald Smith, and, in 1893, by T. G. Pritchard, the present editor. In policy liberal and comprehensive, the "Examiner " has not failed to sound a warning note when it seemed that Parliament and the people under "boom" influence were engaged in expenditure beyond the requirements of the colony, and heaping up burdens which it has since been found grievous to bear. It has steered an independent course. On January 1, 1903, the "Examiner" was enlarged to an eight-page demy of four columns, 24 inches long, and an eight-column sheet on Saturday. It was the first paper to introduce the linotype machine into Tasmania, and has during the last few months enlarged its premises and made expensive additions to its plant. Altogether in its newspaper and printing establishment over a hundred hands are employed. The weekly journal attached to the "Examiner "' is the " Courier," which was launched on January 6, 1901, and since that date it has developed into one of the most popular journals of the island state. The Courier" contains 44 large pages, eight of which are devoted to illustrations. The pictorial work is made a feature, and has already done much to advertise the scenic beauties of Tasmania.

The "Mercury" was first published on the 5th July, 1854, as a bi-weekly paper, the printers and publishers being Messrs. George Auber Jones and John Davies. Two months later Mr. Jones dropped out of the concern, and on 11th September, 1854, the late Mr. John Davies, father of the Hon. C. E. Davies, and Mr. J. G. Davies, C.M.G., became the sole proprietor. On January 1, 1856, the Mercury" was issued thrice weekly, and two years later, in 1858, it became a daily. The "Colonial Times" and the "Tasmanian " became incorporated with the "Mercury," on the 24th August, 1857. "The Tasmanian Daily News" and "The Daily Courier" disappeared on 1st June, 1858, and the 1st June, 1859, and later, "The Advertiser " and

"The Tasmanian Times." Mr. John Davies lived to see the paper he had founded flourish for eighteen years. He died on the 11th June, 1872, and the paper became the property of his sons, Messrs. J. G. Davies and C. E. Davies, who carried on the business under the style of Davies Brothers. Later on, a limited company was formed, the former proprietors retaining the principal interest, with Mr. C. E. Davies as manager. In July, 1877, a weekly paper, in connection with the "Mercury," called "The Tasmanian Mail," was issued for the first time. The first editor of the "Mail" was the late Mr. J. C. Patterson. The "Mercury" has grown considerably since 1854, at the same time becoming cheaper. Till 1856, the price was 4d., then it fell to 3d.; at the end of 1882, to 2d.; and in October, 1893, to id. In 1854, the "Mercury" was printed by hand on an old-fashioned Columbian press; later the proprietor obtained a twocylinder perfecting machine, printing four pages at once; this was used first by hand power, and later by steam; now, in the handsome office lately erected, a new Goss printing machine gets through its miles of paper at an up-to-date speed.

(To be continued.)

AN ANTHROPOMETRIC

SURVEY: ITS UTILITY TO SCIENCE AND TO THE STATE.*

The principal object of an anthropometric survey is to make maps showing the distribution of physical and other measurable characters of the population of a country. Topographical and geological surveys have already been carried out in great detail by most civilised States, but only a few countries have made more or less feeble attempts to map out the characteristics of their populations with the same precision as they have mapped out their topographical features and their geological strata.

It may be objected that an anthropometric survey would be impracticable and useless because there is not the same permanence in the physique of a people that we find in the topography and in the geological strata. But we know enough of the law of ancestral heredity to be practically certain that the average bodily dimensions of a stationary population will be transmitted with little or no change from one generation to another for vast periods of time, provided the environment or conditions of life remain constant. For example, recent investigations have shown that the physique of the present population of Egypt is practically identical with that of the population 9,000 or 10,000 years ago.

There is, therefore, no necessary lack of the permanency necessary to make a survey of the national

• Paper by John Gray, B.Sc., on the Report of the Committee for the Anthropometric Investigation in Great Britain and Ireland, read before Section H of the British Association at Cambridge.