would. therefore, thoroughly appreciate what Lady Lugard said, as to the importance of remembering the trading possibilities that existed in those parts of the country over which England exercised a protectorate. Much had been done of late to discover that fell tropical disease from which everybody suffered so much on the West Coast. Investigations had been made in that direction, and it was believed that the sources of the malaria which prevailed there had been discovered. Having found the sources of the trouble, it was hoped that methods might be taken in years to come to entirely, or partly, eliminate that terrible enemy against the continuous existence of the white man on the West Coast of Africa. Nigeria was by far the biggest, and perhaps the most interesting, of our West African possessions. Lady Lugard had reminded the meeting that it was a third the size of India, and he thought she also said there were ten or twelve million natives residing in the territory. He fancied there were a considerably greater number; but owing to the fact that they killed each other their number had been very much reduced. But what amazed him most of all was that that enormous territory was managed, administered, ruled, and kept in order by a mere handful of British officials and soldiers under the control of Sir Frederick Lugard. He thought he was right in saying that there were not more than two hundred white men in the whole of Nigeria; and when one considered that fact, it was marvellous to think of the work that Sir Frederick and those under him had been able to accomplish in the six years he had been there, not only in fighting the Fulani, and bringing them under his rule and authority, but in being able to conciliate them and make them recognise the justice and advantages of British rule, so that to-day it might be said that comparative, if not absolute, tranquillity was reigning through. out the whole of Nigeria. Of course, Sir Frederick had still many more anxious years before tim in Nigeria. His efforts at the present time were directed towards making the inhabitants of Nigeria still more tranquil and hard-working, towards abolishing completely that horrible system of slavery, which had been such a curse to the country; and, although trying to preserve existing customs and institutions, towards endeavouring to weld and dovetail them in with British ideas, customs, and institutions. That was the great work which was before Sir Frederick, and one in which he was sure all those present wished him every possible success. Lady Lugard also referred to another very important matter, namely, the possibilities of growing cotton in Nigeria, and also to the extension of railway communications. He thoroughly agreed with her that both those matters were of vital importance. She had reminded them that to-day the people of Lancashire were in a condition of considerable distress owing to the fact that a sufficient supply of cotton could not be obtained from America, and that a distinguished statesman had said that it was the duty of England to do all in its power to grow cotton within the British dominions. He quite agreed with the views of that statesman, and that the subject of developing the sources of the raw material of cotton in British possessions was one which was outside party politics; it was a national one, and they all ought to cooperate, and do their best to see that the suggestion made by Lord Rosebery was carried out in the years to come. But, of course, there were a great many difficulties in the way. In the first place, there were no railways in Nigeria, and when those railways were likely to be built, it would be very improper for him, occupying the subordinate position he did at the Colonial Office, to in any way try to indicate. But he thought it would be some time. The distances were very great, and the question of finance was one that always exercised their minds. There was a surveying party who were trying to discover the best routes for the railways, and when they had made their report it would then be for the statesmen who controlled the destinies of this country to decide whether they were prepared to sink a considerable amount of capital in developing the resources of Northern Nigeria, so that the distant places in Nigeria might be brought into closer touch and communication one with the other. Efforts were already being made to grow cotton in Southern Nigeria; and in a spot known by the name of the Sobo Plains, the British Cotton-Growing Association had acquired, or was going to acquire, a territory where they hoped to make a pioneer movement to show that it was possible to cultivate cotton advantageously, both to the cotton grower and also to Lancashire. Lady Lugard pointed out the close resemblance of the administration of India a hundred years ago with the present administration of Nigeria. They all remembered the difficulty that Warren Hastings had to contend with in India, and they could not but be struck with the fact that those which Sir Frederick had to contend with were of a similar character. Like Warren Hastings, Sir Frederick Lugard was a proConsul and a pioneer in developing territories over which England had acquired a right; but although they remembered the name of the former with considerable pride and admiration, he differed from Sir Frederick Lugard in one respect, whereas Warren Hastings, at the end of his career, lost the confidence of his countrymen at home, Sir Frederick Lugard's administration in Nigeria had in the past, and he felt sure would in the future, not only always commended itself to the goodwill and admiration of the Colonial Office, but equally to everyone present, and all British men and women, as being a sound, a careful, a prudent, and, above all, a humane administration. The Earl of SCARBROUGH said he was glad to have the opportunity of thanking Lady Lugard for her most interesting paper. Attractive as he knew it must have been even to those present who had only a superficial and outside interest in Nigeria, they could understand how exceptionally interesting it was to those who had, in one way or another, been more or less identified with its early development. All present recognised that Lady Lugard had special knowledge of her subject. She had not only the advantage of having a husband who was a High Commissioner, and of having visited the territories herself, but she had, to his certain knowledge, for a number of years interested herself in, and materially helped on, the early stages of the growth of Nigeria. He had always attributed to her, rightly or wrongly, the origin of the pleasantsounding name of Nigeria, which tock the place of the very cumbrous titles of the Territories of the Royal Niger Company, and the Niger Coast Protectorate, by which the river and its delta were known in the days of the Charter. He was glad, too, that Lady Lugard had seen fit to draw attention to the more serious side of her subject, because the general public had few enough opportunities of getting to know how work was done in the outlying estates of the Empire. They were dimly aware that a vast territory had been, so to speak, harnessed for their use, and that it was supposed to have great commercial potentialities, but they had no idea of the process, the "spade work" that had been in operation. That process had been going on for a quarter of a century, and it was to the last four years of that period that Lady Lugard had more directly called attention in her paper. In regard to the major portion of those twenty-five years, he trusted that some day the founder of Nigeria, to whom reference had been made that evening, might be induced to fill in the picture, and to describe the birth and growth of a great idea, solely and entirely his own, which culminated in the year 1900 in the handing over to the Crown of a territory which had already been referred to as equal in size to one third of India, and also a great waterway on which it was as safe to travel as the River Thames. Certainly it was given to a few men, as it had been given to Sir George Goldie, to witness his life work developing with the remarkable rapidity that Nigeria had done. Nigeria had been fortunate in the High Commissioners who had taken his place. Lady Lugard had graphically, but too briefly, described what her husband had done during the last four years. She might well be proud of his accomplishments. What Sir Frederick had done had been due, to his (the Earl of Scarbrough's) mind- and he knew him well-to his extraordinary ability for organisation, and his unlimited capacity for work. He was quite sure that Mr. Wallace (whom he was glad to see present), Sir Frederick's able deputy, and, if he might say so, his right-hand man in all his operations, I would bear him out in that remark. He would like to refer in a few words to what Lady Lugard called the material advantages, which it was hoped would be derived from the acquisition of Nigeria. He was perfectly well aware of that, for imperial reasons, it had been necessary to act promptly in efficiently occupying the whole of that huge territory; but he thought Lady Lugard would agree with him that from the commercial point of view, the pace had been rather too hot. Trade and commerce in Nigeria would not advance by leaps and bounds; it would only be a The slow and steady progress. Apart from mineral developments, he could not help feeling that it would be some years before the revenue of Nigeria overtook its expenditure. Lady Lugard had clearly pointed out the reasons for that. During the Foulah rule the country was devastated by slave raiders. No life or property was safe for the mass of the people, and consequently there was no inducement to grow rich. and no incentive to labour. Now the British had gone in as conquerors the country required time to realise that, under our rule, the previous state of affairs had changed. He submitted that the first duty of the Government was to give the natives confidence, and to help them once more to revive their natural instincts for agriculture and commerce. next difficulty was the question of labour. There had been no inducement hitherto for the natives to labour beyond their actual requirements. That was another difficulty that would take time, and which would have to be faced, both in regard to the collection of natural products, and in regard to possible cotton cultivation in that country. He wished to say that he heartily sympathised with the objects of the Cotton Growing Association. He believed that when the labour difficulty was overcome Northern Nigeria would very materially help the Association to realise its object, but he urged the administration, in the first instance, to confine their encouragement of the cultivation of cotton to the districts close to the river, for instance in Nupe, where the difficulties and cost of transport would be minimised. In conclusion, he wished to assure Lady Lugard, and, through her, the High Commissioner that the Niger Company intended, to the best of their power, to further his efforts in the direc tion of developing the interests of the country. Their goal was the same, and if they did not travel along the road quite so fast as Sir Frederick did, he hoped he would not think that the company was a drag on the wheel. In regard to not only West Africa, but all the British tropical possessions in Africa, he had long felt that they had suffered from what he might call hot and cold fits of Government. There were constant changes at home; there were necessarily constant changes in the responsible officials on the coast, which meant a want of continuity of policy and purpose which was a very great hindrance to real progress. He ventured to submit that the true remedy for that state of things was that an African council should be established at home, more or less on similar lines to the Council of the Secretary of State for India, for the purpose of dealing with all questions affecting our tropical African possessions; and he sincerely hoped that a step in that direction might before long be taken. Sir JOHN KIRK, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., said that, looking at the paper from the point of view of an administrator, he quite sympathised with all that had been said. He was able to bear testimony to the work done by Sir Frederick Lugard, not only on the West coast, but on the East coast of Africa, with which he was much more familiar. The problem on the West coast was much more simple than on the East. There was an industrious population, a river which was more or less navigable, and a race that could be developed into a governing class, a state of things which did not exist on the East coast. He thoroughly endorsed all that the Earl of Scarbrough had said in regard to the necessity of moving slowly at first into the more remote parts, and that the country nearer to the river should be first developed, where it could be served by tramways or light railways. Until that was done, cotton industry could not develop and compete with places nearer the coast. The Govern ment must develop the means of transport first; the people were there, the country was suitable, and everything was ready, only it must take a certain amount of time. He thought it would, undoubtedly, be a great advantage if people, with a wide experience of Africa, like Sir Frederick Lugard, could be utilised at home to give advice on the undertakings which could be most profitably and easily carried on in our tropical possessions. Mr. ALFRED EMMOTT, M.P., after expressing his cordial thanks to Lady Lugard for the most interesting account she had given of Northern Nigeria, said that he thought England had in Sir Frederick Lugard one of the highest types of British administrators that the country had ever produced. He had shown himself able, energetic, and successful in war, and a great administrator in times of peace; and he thought he might say, on behalf of all present, that there was not much to fear for the old country so long as she could produce men like Sir Frederick Lugard. He could say that all the more cordially because he happened to be one of those who feared very much the expedition which ended in the fall of Kano, who feared the risks run and the danger that the trade, for which Kano was the great emporium, might be driven over the border into French territory, and find its home in Zinder. He wished to say a word on the question of cotton as it affected Northern Nigeria. He was a little troubled by what His Grace had said. He thought it was a matter of the utmost importance that if anything was to be done in the way of growing cotton in Northern Nigeria that a light railway should be built quickly and at once. He knew it would cost money, but at the present time England was giving £400,000 a year as a subvention to the country. A light railway could be built from a suitable point on the Niger, through Zaria to Kano, at a cost of, he believed, between half-a-million and a million. It would take some years to build a heavy railway, and many millions to construct it. In the meantime a light railway would show what could be done in the way of exporting cotton and importing goods in return. He did not think the industry could wait for a heavy railway. He would not further discuss the question, but merely say that he was a little disappointed at what His Grace had said, because those who were interested in the question of growing cotton were most earnestly anxious that a light railway should be built without delay, and that the matter should not be postponed until a heavy railway could be built. Mr. SYDNEY BUXTON, M.P., thought that the question of the supply of raw cotton was altogether outside and above party politics. As far as he knew the feeling of those with whom he worked was that encouragement should be given to the colonies to grow raw cotton. It was a matter of such vital importance to the greatest industry of the country that he did not think there would be any difference of opinion on either side of the House or in the country if this Government, or some succeeding Government, took energetic means to encourage the growing of cotton in the different colonies. Cotton had already been grown in Nigeria, and it was, therefore, a very good country to make experiments in. He agreed, however, perhaps more with the Chairman than with Mr. Emmott in regard to the question of railways, and thought that in such matters experiments should be made first before a light or heavy railway was constructed; but if the experiments, which he understood was being made at the present time, were successful, he felt sure that the country and the House of Commons would not begrudge as much money as was necessary to make a light railway for the purpose of developing such an industry. He thought they would do so for the very good reason that if the experiment was successful it would certainly pay the country in the long run, and instead of having to increase the subvention to Nigeria, probably in the end it would be able largely to reduce it. It was a question of real practical importance at the present time, and one to which he was very glad that public attention had been called at the meeting. Everyone present had listened with the greatest possible interest to the paper, and felt that in Sir Frederick Lugard they had a great public servant; but much as they appreciated Sir Frederick's invaluable services in Nigeria, and much as they desired that he should not give up his service there, he for one hoped it might not be long before he was called to a higher place and higher service in the country for which he had done already such admirable work. On the motion of the CHAIRMAN, a hearty vote of thanks was accorded to Lady Lugard for her valuable paper. Lady LUGARD, in reply, thanked the audience very heartily for their kind expression of approval, and still more wished to acknowledge her gratitude for the expressions of appreciation of her husband's work that had fallen from the various speakers, and which had been so cordially endorsed by those present. She was sure everyone present would join with her in thanking His Grace the Duke of Marlborough for his kindness in taking the chair. Professor WYNDHAM DUNSTAN, F.R.S. (Director of the Imperial Institute), who was obliged to leave during the discussion, writes:-Lady Lugard has drawn a most attractive picture of the future of Northern Nigeria, but certainly has not exaggerated its possibilities. She has, indeed, not referred to its mineral deposits, which may turn out, on examination, to be of considerable value, although commercial development will have to wait in this, as in other matters, for the provision of transport. This, however, is not a reason for delaying to ascertain what the resources of the country are, and Sir F. Lugard has already taken steps in this direction, in which I was glad to have been able to render some assistance. Preliminary specimens of mineral and vegetable products collected in various districts of the Protectorate were sent by Sir F. Lugard to the Imperial Institute for examination, and a report on their nature and value has now been issued by the Colonial Office (No. 26, 1904). Of the minerals, the most important specimen is of tin-ore from the Bautshi Province. This proved to be rich in tin (63 per cent.), and could be easily worked for the metal. If, as is alleged, ore of this quality is abundant, Northern Nigeria may eventually become one of the great tin-producing areas of the world. Among the vegetable products deserving attention are gums, and oil seeds of commercial value. Rubber plants occur, and could, no doubt, be cultivated in many districts, whilst cotton growing has long been a native industry, and as Lady Lugard has said, this is a subject of the first importance, not only to Nigeria, but to this country. Its consideration should not be delayed because means of transport are not at present available. Cotton cannot be successfully grown on a large scale except after numerous experimental trials to ascertain the varieties best adapted for planting and the districts which are most suitable for its cultivation. There is no reason why this pioneer work should not be proceeded with at once. The results obtained will, no doubt, expedite the provision, by Government, or by private enterprise, of the facilities for transport which are necessary for the commercial development of the subject. Finlay, James Fairbairn, C.S.I., India Office, S.W. Fitz-William, C. B. Raoul, 29, Henry-street, Port of Spain, Trinidad, British West Indies. Hambling, William George A., Forest-house, Queen'sroad, Reading, Berks. Hocart, James Hamilton, 28, High-street, Lambeth, S.E. Jooste, William J., Rand Club, Johannesburg, Transvaal, South Africa. Jopling-Rowe, Mrs. Louise, 7, Pembroke-gardens, Kensington, W. Taylor, Herbert, Boston-house, Kingston-crescent, Portsmouth. Windschuegl, Charles H., Leadenhall-buildings, I, Leadenhall-street, E.C. The following candidates were balloted for and duly elected members of the Society :Barretto, Frederico Demée, Vice-Consul for Mexico, Hong Kong, China. Bundy, Frederick E., Castries, St. Lucia, West Indies. Butler, James William, Blyth House, Humber-road, Smith, Edward Turner, A.M.I.Mech. E., Lagos The paper read was BUILDING STONES, NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL. By L. P. FORD. I. INTRODUCTION. I approach this subject, not as a scientific, but as a business, man who has, by special circumstances been compelled to study the subject from the purely practical point of view. Naturally, even from that side of the subject, one is driven to consider some of the scientific phases of it; and, in the discussion which may follow the reading of this paper, if any chemical or other question arises which I cannot satisfactorily answer, I have asked some scientific friends to be present who will be able to do so. II. HEADS OF ENQUIRY. When I found myself, so to say, "landed" in the endeavour to imitate as near as possible the conditions found in nature in the formation of stone, the following questions naturally presented themselves to me, namely, the origin of the principal rocks; their distribution; and their qualities for building purposes. Then, of course, the known departure from a state of nature and the creation of our present artificial surroundings, necessitated my going still further and finding out, inter alia What our modern atmospheres consist of. The efforts that have been made to counteract or prevent the deleterious effect of such atmospheres. Also, for the same reason and purpose, the attempts which have been made to produce an artificial substitute for natural stone. This again led to an examination of concretes, and the difference between them and a true artificial stone. I now proceed to take up these points one by one. III. THE ORIGIN OF ROCKS. As it would be absurd to attempt to describe in a short paper, the supposed origin of all stones, I shall touch only on that of the most commonly known, namely granites, marbles, limestones, and sandstones. Granites, according to the geologist Hutton's actual observation, have resulted from a state of igneous fusion of from 55 to 80 per cent. of silica with felspar and mica, in the presence of vapour of water, and under a high degree of pressure. Mr. Sorby, and more recently Dr. Firkal, found, on microscopic examination, that the quartz contains minute cells partially filled with water, which clearly infers the presence of steam under great pressure, and this pressure Mr. Sorby calculates, from the extent to which the cavities are now filled with fluid, to have been caused, in the case of the granites on the Scotch Highlands, 26,000 feet of superincumbent rocks more than those of Cornwall. Limestones are, for the most part, rocks formed, in deep waters, by marine animals, which have assimilated the calcareous matter dissolved in the waters of the ocean by the aid of the carbonic acid, also found therein, and converted the former into bones and habitations in the form of shells. These organic deposits have, in some cases, been afterwards covered up by several other deposits, such as clay, sand, and gravel. Amongst the limestones, there are two which should be specially mentioned, namely, Portland and magnesian limestone, or dolomite. The former has a preponderating amount of carbonate of lime, and the dolomite almost equal proportions of carbonate of lime and carbonate of magnesia. Marbles are fine crystalline limestones capable of receiving a polish. Sandstones are composed chiefly of silica grains of variable size, bound together by some cementing material, such as carbonate of lime or oxide of iron, or by great pressure in the presence of high terrestial temperature. Sometimes either mica or carbonate of lime in quantity, or felspar, is found added, and gives us the composite sandstones. The distribution of the stones, which I have here specially mentioned, is not uniform over the earth's surface. Some localities have a great deal of good building stone, but many others have little, and some none. But there is scarcely a place where there are not deposits of silica, both on land and in water. In stone for building purposes, there are very many qualities necessary to be considered, amongst which are First. Strength, compressive and tensile. Thirdly. Hardness, or capability of being cut. and otherwise worked. Fourthly. Structure, which may be compact and in even or uneven layers. Fifthly. Fracture, upon being struck with a hammer, for it may be either straight or conchoidal. Sixthly. Colour. Seventhly. Chemical composition or resistance to acid-laden atmospheres. The questions of strength, absorption, hardness, structure, fracture and colour are very easily settled, and, with regard even to chemical composition, it may be taken as a general rule that the majority of limestones and sandstones will stand well in country parts; but, in towns, where what I call superabundance of civilisation has accumulated, there these artificial conditions create artificial atmospheres, and few natural stones last long. Reid, a great authority on the subject of natural and artificial stones and concrete, said, in 1879 stones. In England and Scotland, in widely separated districts, and subject to a variety of climates, is. exhibited the instability of the most carefully selected At Exeter in the West, Norwich and Ely in the East, Cheshire in the North West, and York and Chester in the North, are to be found Cathedral buildings from a study of which it will be seen that even the most favoured district failed to supply what may be regarded as a moderately durable building The magnesian limestone - a hard crystalline everlasting looking stone-of which theHouses of Parliament are constructed and which was selected by a commission of scientific experts, gave practical evidence of premature decay to the same generation that witnessed the erection of the pile." stone. |