Poole in an article in the Contemporary Review of January, 1878. It appears that until the late discoveries in Cyprus, followed by those in the Troad and at Mycenæ, no works could be assigned to Homer's age, or to the age before him. Homer may be dated in the ninth century before our era, and until quite lately there has scarcely been known any Greek or Græco-Asiatic work of art, of which it could be said that it was older than about B.C. 800, for that is the period to which the objects found in the Hellenic sites can be carried back in an unbroken series. Now, however, we have a mass of works of an undoubtedly earlier period, and it is believed that they range from the Trojan age, perhaps B.C. 1200, to the close of the Greek dominion, in a series of monumental records unrivalled for continuous succession anywhere in the world save in Egypt; it is also evident that they are in origin and characteristics Phoenician, bearing the impress of the art of the nations which in turn ruled the Eastern Mediterranean, Greek art alone being but faintly represented.

Much still remains to be done in the way of antiquarian research in Cyprus; the ancient cities of Aphrodisium, Soli, Arsinoe and others, are as yet almost untouched, but now that the Turkish jealousy of archaeological exploration is removed, these sites will doubtless be carefully investigated, and more light thrown upon the present obscure subject of the early history of Cyprus.

Inland communications.

CHAPTER IV.

COMMUNICATIONS: INLAND, MARITIME, AND TELEGRAPHIC.

THE means of internal communication in Cyprus are, as is generally the case throughout the Turkish dominions, very defective.

The only road which is really fit for carriages is that connecting Nicosia with Larnaca, but even this, as will afterwards be shown, is at present anything but a good road according to English ideas. The want of a good means of communication between these towns has long been apparent, and is indeed almost a necessity for the conduct of the business of the island, but the apathy and dilatoriness of the Turkish officials has long delayed and prevented its construction. Consul Sandwith in a report of 1867, says that an abortive attempt to construct this road was made three or four years previously, but instead of devoting any of the usual revenue of the island to the purpose, a tax was imposed on that part of the country which was to have benefited by the undertaking, and its labouring population was compelled to work on the road gratuitously. After £3,000 had been expended in the payment of salaries to an engineer and his staff, and in preliminary expenses, the work stopped, the only result being the cutting of a ditch for five miles on either side of the intended road. The next Governor recommended the abandonment of the scheme, but at the beginning of 1867, Consul Sandwith found that the inhabitants of the district were still paying the road tax, and as much as £130 had been taken from one village, where the population, being very poor, had offered to work without remuneration in lieu of paying the tax, but were told that money, and not labour, was required.

At some period, however, during the last ten years, this road has been made passable for carriages, and has been daily used by a diligence, or omnibus, which runs between Nicosia and Larnaca, but it is very evident from the accounts of it which have lately reached us, that a good deal of labour must still be expended upon it, before it becomes a convenient communication. The remaining roads of the island, even those radiating from Nicosia to the chief places on the coast such as Famagusta, Cerinea, Limasol, and Baffo, as well as the road along the southern shore from Famagusta, through Larnaca and Limasol, to Baffo, are said to be nothing more than fair mule and camel tracks, which are, however, used in places with more or less difficulty by the native carts carrying agricultural produce. Most of these roads might, it is stated, be con

verted into carriage roads without any very great outlay; moreover, the level character of a great portion of the interior of the island offers facilities for the construction of good roads, and there can be no doubt that the immediate attention of the present government will be directed to the subject of the improvement of existing communications, and the construction of new ones where required. In the more mountainous parts of the island, only rough and difficult bridle paths are at present to be found. Bridges are very generally wanting, and are much needed, for in winter, when the numerous torrents which cross the roads are swollen by rain, dangerous accidents are of frequent occurrence, as travellers who are ignorant of the depth and of the force of the current, are compelled to wade across the stream.

The annual consular reports invariably contain allusions to the neglect on the part of the Turkish Government of public works, and especially the construction and repair of roads and bridges.

Vizierial orders to provincial governors on the subject, have indeed not been wanting, but as no funds are provided or set apart for the purpose, the urgent orders practically go no further than their record. Consul Riddell, writing in April 1876, says that "the pressure for money to help Imperial necessities at the capital is so great, that it is useless to expect any expenditure on the much needed public works in Cyprus;" and Consul Watkins in his report dated March 1878, notices that nothing whatever had been done during the past year, and even the existing carriage road between Larnaca and Nicosia was greatly neglected.

The following descriptions of the principal inland communications of the island have been extracted from the accounts of travellers who have passed over them at various times, they may serve to give some idea of their present state; further details are not at hand :—

DESCRIPTION OF THE ROAD.

1. LARNACA TO NICOSIA.

The road, on leaving the Marina of Larnaca, takes a northerly direction to Larnaca proper, which is about three-quarters of a mile distant, and winds through the narrow streets of that town, from which it emerges upon an extensive plain of dry, but apparently fair soil of a white marly description. For about three miles there are indications of cultivation; at first cotton fields are not infrequent, and portions of land here bear grain crops; vineyards, too, occasionally appear, but the vines in this neighbourhood are generally dwarf and stunted, and the grapes very small. The general direction of the road is north-west, it is very rough and stony, full of deep ruts, and entirely out of repair. The Greek village of

Places on the
Road.

Distances in
miles.

Intermediate.

Total.

DESCRIPTION OF THE ROAD.

Aradippo 3 3

LARNACA TO NICOSIA-continued.

Aradippo, which consists of about twenty-five houses and
a church, lies a short distance to the left of the road,
and is surrounded by a few small gardens. Nicosia
can be reached by a road through Aradippo and Dali,
but the distance is rather longer than by the main road
through Athienou.

Cultivation now almost entirely ceases, and the country
is generally dry and arid, but wherever there is
even a trickle of water all becomes verdant; at in-
tervals small huts are passed, and these, being built
close to water, stand in fertile gardens forming oases
in the miniature desert. For about six miles the road
ascends, but not steeply, and passes through a hilly
limestone country; then a narrow plateau is crossed,
from which an extensive view over the Messaria plain
is obtained, and the road descends the northern slope of
the hills. The country is here much broken, and the
ravines of the winter torrents are covered with shrubs.
There are two roads between Aradippo and Athienou,
the westerly one of the two is the best.
The un-
cultivated ground is thickly covered with wild thyme,
bushes of a furzy nature, and thistles.

Athienon .. 10 13 The village of Athienou consists of a group of mud

houses and a neat Greek church. There is not much
to attract the eye, but it is considered in Cyprus a
thriving village, and is chiefly inhabited by muleteers,
who keep good mules for hire. The village stands in a
gentle depression, and round it are cornfields, some
large and rich gardens of olives and mulberries, and a
few vineyards. The water supply is plentiful, and
some of the undulating ground in the vicinity is under
tillage. The road continues through a partially culti-
vated country, and the plain is varied here and there
by low table-shaped hills of sand and conglomerate. No
trees are to be seen except the olives and other fruit
trees which generally grow close to the villages or
detached houses.

Piroi is a small and unimportant village close to the
road. Here the river Idalia is crossed by a stone bridge
which was built by the Venetians. A mule track from
Larnaca, which is said to be shorter than the main
road, joins it at the bridge, having hitherto taken a direc-
tion slightly more to the eastward. The road continues
through a flat and uninteresting country and passes
Aglangia and other insignificant villages; a low ridge of
hills is crossed from which a good view of Nicosia,
about two miles distant, is obtained. The northern
part of the Messaria plain is well cultivated, and
produces the best grain crops in the island. The town
of Nicosia is described in the preceding chapter.
The whole road, though passable by carriages, is said to
be in a very bad condition.

Distances in
miles.

Intermediate.

Total.

DESCRIPTION OF THE ROAD.

12 12

15 27

2. FAMAGUSTA TO LARNACA.

The road leaves Famagusta by the gate at the southwestern angle of the fortifications, and takes a southerly direction to the town of Varoschia. Both Famagusta and Varoschia are described in the preceding chapter. The road then turns south-west, and passes through a flat and dreary country, which is entirely without trees, and very scantily inhabited. The western end of Lake Paralimni, which in summer is dry, is skirted, and the small village of Sotira also lies on the left-hand side of the road, which continues through a dry and arid plain, over which it is said at one time the forest of Idalium extended.

The village of Ormidia is pleasantly situated at the eastern extremity of the Bay of Larnaca; it consists of a number of scattered huts built along a range of heights overlooking the water. General di Cesnola made this place his summer residence for several years, and praises it very highly; the chief attractions are stated to be, a never failing cool breeze at night, good water, and large shady gardens. The road turns west after passing Ormidia, and skirts the shore of the bay for some miles passing Mavrospilios and Ridgelia; the sea is bordered by low rocks which time and weather have formed into stalactitic shapes. At a ruined and dismantled fort called Yeni Kale, the coast line trends round to the southward, and the road follows the course of the bay, turning a little inland in order to avoid a piece of marshy ground where some streams run down to the sea. A great part of the country in this neighbourhood is uncultivated and covered with heath, weeds, thistles, and thorny shrubs.

Larnaca is described in the preceding chapter. This road could be made passable by carriages without any great labour, as most of the country traversed is quite flat.

3. NICOSIA TO CERINEA.

The road passes through the fortifications by the Cerinea gate, and takes a general northerly direction through a plain, the greater part of which is in the spring sown with grain, and yields good crops. In summer it is, however, entirely burnt up, and only thistles and thorny weeds are to be seen amongst stubble.

1 The road crosses the River Pedias about one and a half miles from the walls of Nicosia; this stream is very variable in its condition; after the rains it is so full of water that it overflows its banks, inundates the adjoining flat country, and spreads a rich alluvium over the fields, but in summer it is often either dry, or has only a mere trickle of water in its bed. For about two and a half miles more, the road continues

River Pedias 11