mering from this cause diminishes perceptibly, and sometimes even disappears, in proportion as the individual regains his presence of mind and masters his internal impression. "The observations," he adds, "which I have the sad privilege of making on myself every day, confirm what is here advanced. I have often intercourse with men for whom I feel so much respect, that it is almost impossible for me to speak to them when I appear before them. But if the conversation, of which they at first furnish the whole, goes on and becomes animated, recovering soon from my first emotion, I shake off all little considerations, and, raising myself to their height, I discuss with them without fear, and without the slightest difficulty in my pronunciation." This indicates the supreme influence of the nervous influx on the movements of the vocal muscles, and it is curiously supported and illustrated by a fact mentioned by M. Itard, of a boy of eleven, who was excessively at fault whenever he attempted to speak in the presence of persons looking at him, but in whom the stammering instantly disappeared as soon as, by shutting out the light, he ceased to be visible. This is explicable only on the theory of opposite mental emotions.

Ninthly, As the individual advances in age, and acquires consistency and unity of character, the infirmity becomes less and less marked, and even frequently disappears altogether. In the same way it is generally more marked in the morning than in the evening; because the brain has not then assumed its full complement of activity, nor been exposed to the numerous stimuli which beset it in the ordinary labours of the day.

A late writer seems to us to mistake the effect for the cause, when he says that stammerers, being deprived of the means of communication with their fellows, become reserved and timid in society, and of exquisite sensibility; for, according to the view we have been unfolding, the natural timidity and sensibility, instead of being the result, are in fact the chief causes of the stammer or defect in pronunciation. And we think this confirmed by his own observation, that old age is generally a cure, and that "old men, when interrogated on the causes of the amendment, generally attribute it to their having become less hasty, or much

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more moderate and considerate, and in a much less hurry to force out their ideas."*

The cerebral and mental cause of stammering explains the effects of education and the rational mode of cure.

Speech being the vehicle of ideas, and of no use but to convey them, it is obvious that one important condition in securing a distinct articulation is to have previously acquired distinct ideas. Idiots, having few ideas, never learn to speak. For the same reason, children ought not to be forced to speak in the way that is generally done. This ill-timed haste has the opposite effect from that desired, for the subjects of it speak later and with greater confusion; and the extreme attention that is paid to their every word, dispenses them from distinct articulation, and causes a bad pronunciation for their whole lives. This is remarked very often in children brought up in towns. They speak earlier but much less distinctly, than those reared in the country. Learning by rote is held by Dr Voisin to be very pernicious, as it accustoms the child to negligent and unmeaning pronunciation in his repetition of the same words.

It is remarked, indeed, that those who are late of speaking never speak so distinctly as the others; but here the effect is often mistaken for the cause, for the child is long of speaking only because his vocal organs are naturally embarrassed, and not because they have lain idle from the want of speech. If the organs were not constitutionally impeded, why should any one child be longer of speaking than another? The child that stammers has quite as much use for speaking as any other, and in general he is stimulated to an infinitely greater degree to exert his power of speech. Parents become uneasy, and, by their ill-judged efforts at hastening improvement, often cause the very defect they seek to avoid.

From this view it will appear that the cure of stammering is to be looked for in removing the exciting causes, and in bringing the vocal muscles into harmonious action by determined and patient exercise. The opposite emotions, so generally productive of stammering, may, especially in early life, be gradually got rid of by a judicious moral treatment, by directing the attention of the child to the exist

* Dictionnaire de Médecine, tome iii. p. 344.

ence of these emotions as causes,-by inspiring him with friendly confidence,-by exciting him resolutely to shun any attempt at pronunciation when he feels himself unable to master it, by his exercising himself when alone and free from emotion, in talking and reading aloud, and for a length of time, so as to habituate the muscles to simultaneous and systematic action—and, we may add, as a very effectual remedy, by increasing the natural difficulty in such a way as to require a STRONG and UNDIVIded mental efFORT to accomplish the utterance of a sound, and thereby add to the amount of nervous energy distributed to the organs of speech. The practice of Demosthenes is a most excellent example. He cured himself of inveterate stammering by filling his mouth with pebbles, aud accustoming himself to recitations in that state. It required strong local action, and a concentrated attention, to emit a sound without choking himself, or allowing the pebbles to drop from his mouth; and this was precisely the natural remedy to apply to opposite and contending emotions and divided attention.

Demosthenes adopted the other most effectual part of the means of cure. He exercised himself alone, and free from distracting emotions, to such a degree, that he constructed a subterraneous cabinet on purpose for perfect retirement, and sometimes passed two or three months without ever leaving it, having previously shaven one-half of his head, that he might not be able to appear in public when the temptation should come upon him. And the perfect success which attended this plan is universally known. His voice passed from a weak, uncertain, and unmanageable, to a full, powerful, and even melodious tone, and became so remarkably flexible as to accommodate itself with ease to the very numerous and delicate inflections of the Greek tongue. But as a complete cure, or harmonious action of the vocal muscles, can be obtained only by the repetition of the muscular action till a habit or tendency to act becomes established, it is evident that perseverance is an essential element in its accomplishment, and that without this the temporary amendment obtained at first by the excitement consequent upon a trial of any means very soon disappears, and leaves the infirmity altogether unmitigated.

M. Itard, whom we have already mentioned, recommends very strongly, where it can be done, to force chil

dren to speak in a foreign language, by giving them a foreign governess or tutor; and the propriety of this advice is very palpable when we consider that it requires a more powerful and concentrated effort to speak and to pronounce a foreign than a native tongue, and that it is precisely a strong, undivided, and long-continued mental effort that is necessary to effect a cure.

M. Itard regards weakness in the muscles of the voice as the cause of stammering, and he has invented, and used with much success, a small forked instrument, which he places under the tongue, in order to give them support. We approve highly of the practice, but think his explanation of its efficacy likely to lead to error. To us it appears to serve the same purpose that the pebbles did in the mouth of the Grecian orator, viz. to solicit such an amount of nervous stimulus to the parts, and such an effort of attention as shall absorb the mind, and prevent its unity of purpose being divided by contrary emotions. And the proofs that this is the true source of the muscular debility are, that for all purposes except speaking, the movements of the lips and tongue are as powerful and as perfect as in any other individual, and that old age, which increases real debility, and which, therefore, ought to increase stammering if it arose from this cause, almost invariably cures it. We think it right to notice this mistake in principle, as, from M. Itard's well-merited reputation, his practice is likely to be fol lowed; and as every man will modify it according to his own lights, many, viewing it as a mere mechanical support, might do so in a wrong way, and produce mischief instead of benefit, and then blame him for misleading them.

It is scarcely necessary to add, that debility, in which this, in common with many other forms of nervous disease, often originates in the young, must be obviated by a due supply of nourishing food, country air, regular exercise, and, though last, not least, by cheerful society, kindness, and encouragement. The use of Phrenology in enabling a stammerer to understand his own case, or a parent to direct the treatment of his child under this infirmity, is so obvious, that we reckon it unnecessary to dwell on it. By rendering the nature and modes of action of the mental powers clear and familiar, it aids us in removing every morbid affection of which the origin lies in them,

CASE OF MENTAL DERANGEMENT, WITH GRADUAL DIMINUTION OF THE SIZE OF THE HEAD.*

TD- was intended for the medical profession; but, when about eighteen or nineteen years of age, shewed obvious aberrations of mind that unfitted him for any employment. His father having died, and left him a sum of money, the interest of which, under economical management, might suffice for his support, application was made by his relations to the Court of Session, who appointed me curator of his effects, it not being necessary to confine his person. This power was conferred in 1819; and from that time up to July 1827, when T— D—died, he continued under my superintendence.

In 1819, TD's head was fully of an average size; the knowing organs were largely developed, the forehead rose high and rather perpendicularly, but was not broad. The organ of Comparison was considerably larger than Causality and Wit. The organs of the propensities were developed in about an average degree; Acquisitiveness and Secretiveness having rather the predominance. The organs of Self-esteem and Love of Approbation were decidedly large, the former much above an average. Imitation and Firmness were large, and the moral organs well developed. There was no circumstance in the size or shape of the brain that indicated insanity, so that the disease was obviously one affecting its internal constitution.

His alienation presented the following features:-He was easily provoked, and fierce when irritated, but otherwise free from all malevolence. He entertained an exalted opinion of his own greatness, and conceived himself to be a genius of the highest order, particularly in the drama, and on this account adopted the name of Shakspeare. For many years he subscribed his name "T— Shakspeare D." He was fond of money, extremely alive to order, and a great admirer of the fair sex. In other respects his mind presented no particular appearances.

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The notion of his own greatness was obviously referable

* By George Combe.-Vol. iv. No. 16. p. 495.