clay as regards moisture, while the inequalities of acid are exhausted, and the mere clay matter left drying are so great as to give the soil at every stage behind, so that a marling may do harm if not fol of weather an advantage. Twenty-five per cent in lowed up by frequent and judicious green cropping. quantity of crop is spoken of as a result of clay In light lands, however, a different process is burning, and ten shillings per quarter in the sam- necessary. They must first of all be rendered adple; while other instances are given of the most hesive. Until they contain clay enough to make worthless land being made to grow a crop equal them hold the roots of plants steadily and firmly, to the entire fee simple of the land. Forty-five bushels of wheat are mentioned as the product after burning of land previously worth only seven shillings and sixpence per acre rent. Another mode of improving a strong tenacious clay is the carting on of broken stones, limestone, sandstone, granite-anything, in fact, to alter the mechanical constitution of the stubborn clay. The absorptive power of stones differs very materially from clay. Thus a dry soil may absorb 40 per cent. of water: in other words, a cubic foot of clay may weigh 75lbs., and absorb 51lbs. of water; a cubic foot of chalk will not absorb more than 4lbs. or 5lbs.; a freestone soil 5.5lbs. to 6lbs. a granite from 1lb. to 4lbs. ; so that it is impossible almost to mix any kind of stone with clay and not ameliorate its texture by placing in it two materials of differently absorbing properties and consequently different drying qualities. to enable them to retain the phosphorus, potash, and ammonia supplied in the shape of manure, the cultivator is labouring under great disadvantages, and he should expend his best efforts in decreasing the difficulties. The whole red sandstone district-the range of sand land-contains in its valleys as strong clay as it contains blowing sand on its uplands, and loam on the sides of these undulations. But more, beneath the sand, at a greater or less depth, there is invariably clay, sometimes at the same level as the clay in the valleys, and sometimes below it. Now it may often be a question whether it is desirable to cart the clay over the surface to a distance, or dig down to it. It can seldom be removed either way for less than sixpence per cubic yard; but it will generally be found that the extra carting for any considerable distance will be more than the cost of deep digging; and hence the clay pit on the spot is better than the clay valley at a distance. On the very weakest land, 150 to 200 tons per acre are necessary; but in ordinary cases 80 to 100 tons may do; and even twenty tons per acre put on the surface early in the winter, so as to have the benefit of winter frost, and then strewed by the harrows, cross-ploughed, and worked in for turnips, will produce a wonderful revolution both in the bulk and yield of crops, and in the facility the land will obtain of holding the manure which may be applied. But another object may be served. These rocks all contain manurial matter. If it be mountain limestone it will silently and gradually convey to the soil the carbonic acid and the phosphoric acid which is so well known to supply a nidus to the clover so as to make them spring where they had never been sown. Professor Johnston found (Johnston on Lime, p. 246) that the Carluke limestone, on the carboniferous series, to which we have referred, contained from 1.93 to 2.33 per cent. Though sand may be so much improved by clay of phosphate of lime; and the Brampton lime, a of almost any kind-for if it be irony or ocherous member of the same series, contained 0.33 per the porous sand will soon admit of the washing cent. of the same material. But if it be potash or out of any excessive quantity, which will be benesoda-for they seem to replace each other in the ficial to sand, and gravel, and limestone light soils vegetable economy-it will be furnished by the-it is seldom that any great encouragement can be granite if it be available. Small as are the quanti-held out to place sand on clay. Gravel will always ties of lime and magnesia in this primitive stone, it do good if put on in large quantities; but we heard contains 933 per cent. of potash and soda, and a novel remark on the treatment of clay land, which hence is a most valuable auxiliary to clay soils in we must here mention as one of the suggestive facts the shape of broken stones. Marl, though a fitter | rather for experiment than remuneration. Clay application to sands or gravels, may sometimes be land, it is well known, heats into fissures in the advantageously applied to clay, if good cultivation summer months by the drought. A friend profollows. Marling, however, often enriches the poses to cart and spread on sand, to fill up these father to the impoverishment of the son. It con- fissures at this season, so as to admit of air and tains the phosphates and lime; and so long as water being admitted and transmitted through these last, the roots of plants are pushed vigorously these sealed-up interstices. We will not pronounce through the soil, and the foliage forms a shelter upon the plan, even in its embryo state; but the from the baking sun; but if corn crop after corn idea is worth an experimental trial. crop is abstracted-if the same poaching and rob- It surely need not be said that to deepen a soil bing system goes on-the lime and phosphoric is to improve it. It is to bring it into the state of the Carse of Gowrie soil; to make the subsoil partake of the character-and that a good one-of the surface soil. Now there are three sorts of subsoil which have to be ameliorated, though there are sub-classes as numerous as letters of the alphabet: the tenacious brick clay, containing little more than water, sand, and alumina; the grey and yellow sands, containing sand and ochre, without one particle of clay; and that most unmanageable and impervious of all substances-the "moorband pan," which is a complete stopper to all roots of plants penetrating downwards. important operation. Subsoiling is too often abandoned. The large Deanston subsoil ploughs are lying aside, covered with dirt and canker-a proof that either they are not successful, or they are too expensive to use. The fact is, they are used most improperly. The farmer thinks subsoiling can be best performed while he can do no other work. He commences too early in spring, or too late in autumn, to do anything else, and hence he kneads the subsoil clay into a puddle. He ruins his land! it never casts it. But in dry weather he has other things to do: Clay subsoils hold water like a pot: nothing can he wants his horses to plough, and scarify, and improve them while so tenacious, for nothing goes harrow; whereas then is the only time for successthrough them. Draining does a little: it does ful operation. The clay when dry will break into much it places them accessible to air, to frost, and pieces: it will fracture in all directions; but if the to the action of filtered water. The rain, contain- least wet, the subsoil plough is another wedgeing ammonia and phosphoretted and sulphuretted the best possible adapted for puddling the subsoil. hydrogen, passes through it, and leaves a little of It will make a road where it passes, but will leave its qualities in the soil as it does so. But this is the rest of the land in the most perfectly imperonly to a certain depth. Pulverization is never at- vious state. tempted beyond a certain maximum. The surface is kept pulverized; but the very action of the wedge-the plough-is constantly to knead and consolidate the subsoil, and hence though the top soil may be in a state favourable for retaining any external process of fertilization, the subsoil is often the very reverse. Now subsoiling well-drained land, when it is in a condition favourable, is a very We have attempted to show this by a couple of figures. Figure 1 represents a section of the land subsoiled in wet weather. The upper soil A E is pulverized, but the track of the subsoil plough is distinctly marked D D, and there the earth is proper as far as it has gone; but the rest of the subsoil B B B is thoroughly unbroken, and even more consolidated than before. as the plough has penetrated, and even beyond, and nearly to the drains c c c, while the compression of the soil in Fig. 1 has an effect just the op In Figure 2 a sectio n is given of a soil and sub- the whole mass of subsoil is broken, at least as far soil pulverized thoroughly, by being executed in dry weather. The soil A E is still in the same state of pulverization as the above; but instead of the mere pressed indentations of the subsoil plough, posite. is invaluable it breaks the pan, aërates the soil and subsoil, and admits of the ochery masses, so inimical to plants, being washed down with the genial rains. Now it must be obvious that whatever descrip- they go off in June, and even in May, and nothing tion of soil you may have to contend with, the thus will remedy it. Neither manure, nor hoeing, nor aërating the soil, and bringing it within the range top-dressings can cure them. Now here subsoiling of air, of frost, and of water, must have a most ameliorating tendency. If the air, the frost, and the water could break down and decompose the original rock, surely it will do the same to the subsoil; and hence, if properly done, clay will be vastly benefited by the operation of subsoiling: if not it will be absolutely injured. But may not sand be also benefited? This is a wide and important question. But there are strong cases where it may be safely answered in the affirmative. On some sands there are impervious beds of iron and flint-so solid, so compact, that they can hardly be broken. It is called "moorband pan": wherever this is formed the crops will not yield; a little frost, or a little wet, or a little drought, or even an ordinary season kills them; Nor will the soils be more susceptible of drought: they will be less so. The pan will hold the water only in a wet time, when it ought to drain away; it will prevent its rising by capillary attraction in a dry one, when it is wanted, and a subsoiling here will be of immense advantage. Nor on sands alone, but even on the chalk, the magnesian and oolite brash, and the other limestones of the country, will subsoiling be valuable in deepening the soil, and so improving its condition. Sowerby, Thirsk, Sept. 19, 1851. "Sine experientia nihil sufficienter sciri potest. empiricism; the one is practice, that which follows Argumentum concludit, sed non certificat, neque it is theory. Perhaps life could not be sustained removet dubitationem; et quiescat animus in for a great length of time upon substances alone intuita veritatis, nisi eam inveniat via experientiæ." OPUS MAJUS. nutritive, and it may be necessary to use innutritive substances in combination with them. There are four essential elements in animal sub- To repeat, the plastic elements of nutrition, or stances; viz., oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and those which contribute to the building of the frame carbon. The nutritive qualities of animal sub- of the animal, are such as contain nitrogen in some stances depend upon the presence of nitrogen, proportion-perhaps a small proportion only is which is found in fibrine (flesh), in the blood, and caseine (milk). Hence these are called azotised substances, which means that they contain nitrogen. Other substances are called non-azotised; this, of course, implies that nitrogen is not present. Now fat is one of these; it does not contain nitrogen. Whereas animal flesh holds it in great proportion. So that the constituents of fat are:Hydrogen, the element of water. Oxygen, the element of vital air. Carbon, the element of coal. needed. The non-nitrogenous substances are the elements of respiration. Either of these given in an undue proportion or quantity are, therefore, of unhealthy quality; the elements must either remain unconsumed in the blood, or must be deposited as fat, if the lungs, the skin, together with the other organs of waste, are unable to dispose of them. The result is the same, the effects are co-equal, whether fat be formed de novo, or whether it exists in the food. There must be also a correct balance between the organs of supply and the organs of To these there is in flesh, as before stated (what waste to maintain a healthy condition-to increase may be here called), the flesh-forming element-growth to its fullest extent. i. e., nitrogen. So that it may be comprehended A frequent accompaniment of pouched heart is, why muscle, lean meat, or flesh, is nutritive, whilst that the heart bag holds a great quantity of water. fat is comparatively innutritive. This is no This, by surrounding the heart, interferes with its hypothesis or crude conjecture. Philosophical ex- healthy action. Often, by distention of the bag, periment has demonstrated that animals cannot the heart is removed from its natural situation from live for any length of time, if the food they take the left to the right side of the chest, where its does not contain nitrogen. So far, experience beating may be distinguished. The breathing is proves that non-nitrogenous substances are un- oppressed, and similar to what has been stated. In suitable to the life of these animals. Thus science the lungs, too, of these animals water bags, fluke constructs its rules or axioms upon the dogmas of cysts, or hydatids, are found. The fluid at times closely it accords with this essay; how clearly what he states points out the primary symptoms of the disease in question, and declares its initiation. During the progress of fattening, the animal is sometimes (as is said) "taken off its legs," and the blood is vitiated, that the nervous function is impaired; the morbid sympathies are aroused, and nature significantly points out, in the absence of appetite, that supply must be diminished—that no more stimulating food is to be given till at least the secretions have rectified themselves. This precaution neglected, or misunderstood, feverish symptoms supervene, and then the "stand still." Nature refuses to accommodate herself to these perverse dictations. The animal cannot be fatted. Nay, the common food containing but a small proportion of nitrogen, is not only innutritive at this will be evacuated or absorbed, and so leave a cavity, which is encrusted with a curdy matter. The liver also is infested with these animalcules. Are they not generated by the abnormal condition of the blood, from mismanagement and improper food while the animal is young? From a perver-refuses its food. What do these indicate? That sion of nutrition, in which the degenerated fluid escapes from the small blood vessels, it has lost its plastic qualities, and is chemically allied to fat. Cases sometimes occur in which the heart is enlarged, and its walls are increased in thickness; the organ has a firmer or harder feel than is natural. In these cases, the partition (septum) which divides the right from the left side of the heart is frequently found ossified, or in a state resembling bone. This bone-like formation takes place at the broad end of the heart, and continues downwards for an inch or more towards the apex, or narrow end. From the frequency of this time, but the organs of nutrition prefer that food ossification, a vulgar notion prevails that the heart which is devoid of nitrogen, in order that the quanis endowed with bone, and that the ossified septum tum of blood may circulate; so the fat which had is "the bone of the heart." Here the heart gene- accumulated is absorbed, a certain degree of rally preserves its healthy outline. These deposits emaciation takes place, the veins are relieved of of bone may be traced upon the coats of the larger distention, the animal is said to "go back." arteries, so that the proper elasticity of the vessels is Again, the feverish symptoms may continue, and lessened, and the circulation in the smaller vessels they often run high (for fat is a bad conductor of becomes weak and irregular. This complaint is heat, and the inspired oxygen is more rapidly abreferrible to an unhealthy condition of the blood, sorbed when fat abounds), when the system of and attacks the carcass in the form of rheumatism. absorbents, as subordinate to the vital organs, is This rheumatism (if the name is to be preferred) called upon for increased activity. There is a disis a disease in cattle but little understood, and is too charge of the fluid part of the blood, or "running often treated improperly by large bleedings, out;" in which case the lacteals convey the nuevacuants, and other debilitating means, rather tritive chyle with less velocity, and rapid emaciathan by judicious abstraction of solid food, equal tion follows. Then the absorbents become temperature, &c. paralysed for a time from undue action, and there is consequent exhaustion. "Glacies ne frigida lædat Molle pecus, scabiemque ferat, turpesque podagras." GEORG. iii., 298. The different diseases which have been named, although varying in their seat, apparent connection, and similarity, very often arise from a common cause; and the direction given to the locality of disease may depend upon circumstances altogether incidental, as season, age of the animal, condition of the atmosphere, location, animal electricity, &c. "Animals should have plenty, but should never be cloyed; they, on the contrary, should eat all up greedily, and too much should not be given at once. If forced too fast on highly stimulating food, more time is lost, by the system becoming disarranged, than by steadily progressing. Through immoderate feeding they become feverish and out of health. With a constant moderate supply, you keep the blood in a healthy, regular state." These are the recent expressions of an intelligent grazier, in which it cannot fail to be noticed how It is true that the natural food of herbivorous animals does not contain much nitrogen, and much of that force is perhaps for the production of animal heat; but this is no argument in favour of the artificial state to which animals are brought, much less an argument for the diseased condition which almost inevitably follows it. So, when general causes produce epidemic disease in animals, as influenza or typhus, it may be understood why, with pouched heart, they should be more prone to inflammation of the lungs, and why such epidemic should be with them more commonly fatal; why the skin should have more difficulty in performing its functions, and why the mucous membrane which lines the intestines should become affected in the form of dysentery, or running out, when much of the nutritive chyle passes off without entering the circulation. That in an animal unduly fatted, the blood holding an excess of carbon should make it more prone to fever, and subject to fatty degeneration; that an increase of nitrogen being present in the As to the disease of the heart here insisted on, blood should increase the susceptibility to inflam- there is no reason to qualify a fact so obvious to mation; whether nitrogen is absorbed at each any one who will give attention to it, although it inspiration, and again expelled as watery vapour, has not been heretofore noticed. The fact adwhether it is afforded to the saliva during mastica-mitted, it will be allowed that the conclusions drawn tion of the food, and so conveyed to the ingesta, or whether imbibed by the skin; still the argument is intact if there be an excess of it in the blood, and this excess produced by artificial means. Can a doubt remain, if what has been stated has truth about it, that mismanagement and error prevail throughout the process of fattening?* Cui bono?—to fatten and produce animals weak and unwieldly? It neither savours of art, nor smacks of science; it neither tends to utility, nor is it productive of profit. from it are not altogether gratuitous. Indeed, it Hinckly, Leicestershire. GUANO AS A MANURE. BY A FARMER. A correspondent asks, "Will guano as a manure | comparison. They are the basis of every good be sufficient in itself, if continuously applied year routine of farming, and to secure them is the first after year, to improve ordinary meadow land? or aim of the farmer. Inquiries over 34 farms made can it only be applied beneficially occasionally?" To this inquiry we reply, without much hesitation, that guano is not of itself sufficient to keep any land in heart, much less to improve it. by the Annandale Farmers' Club, prove farmyard manure to be the surest foundation of the farmer's practice. When the crops were to be only half pulled off, the quantity should never be less than This assertion is at variance with the opinion of 20 cubic yards per Scotch acre, unless with a some few men of high standing; but whilst the larger addition of ground bones, as well as guano. "doctors" have been discussing the matter in their When crops were sown with farmyard manure studies, the "patients" have decided it for them-alone, in small quantities, the want of guano was selves in the fields. We quote for the present one seen in the irregularity of size and deficiency of series of experiments alone, as they are the results weight of the crop. Two or 2 cwts. of guano, in of the unaided labour of an agricultural associa- cases of indifferent dunging, always increased the tion, and bear the stamp of being the work of men crop by one-third or one-fourth. who seek information that may be useful in the management of their farms. It is true that these experiments are for the purpose of answering precisely a similar inquiry respecting the turnip crop as your correspondent asks respecting his meadow; but satisfactory reasons can be assigned for the same answer being true in each case. Turnips were the best crop on which to attempt * Her Majesty's butcher, unquestionably a man of much experience, is reported to have lately made the following pithy observations :-"This fattening is absurd; it is altogether a mistake. I think nothing of it. What is wanted (if possible) is five-sixths muscle and one-sixth fat, not the reverse." So that truth must come altogether by tardy and seemingly unwilling steps. She sometimes appears by circuitous and unexpected paths, as in this instance, where the supposed vested in terests of (Hibernice) the fifth quarter are altogether put aside. + Trans. High. Soc., 1850, p. 235. In the case then of turnips, whilst guano cannot be depended upon alone, though it is a useful addition to other manures, farmyard manure, if sufficient of it can be procured, may be used without hesitation. Your correspondent asks us to give the reasons for the answers to his inquiry. Perhaps none better can be given than in the words of the "Farmers' Almanac" (page 93, 1851). If the productive powers of the soil are to be maintained, "the chemical substances withdrawn by the crop must be restored to the soil in some fertilizer or other." The same fact is reiterated by Liebig, and every writer on the subject; and the reason why farmyard manure was so much better for the turnip crop than guano is, that it contains every ingredient which the crop requires, as might indeed have been expected, when we consider that it is derived from animals which have been fed on the very plant the farmer wishes again to raise. On the other hand, guano only contains |