whether the parent Sipunculas bequeathes the chosen lodging of its caudal termination to its eldest born, and so on from generation to generation, a veritable entailed property, we know not at present; but the inquiry is a most interesting one, and well worth the attention of the experimental zoologist. The Sipunculas is not, however, content with the habitation built for it by its molluscan predecessor; it exercises its own architectural ingenuity, and secures the entrance of its shell by a plaster-work of sand, leaving a round hole in the centre sufficiently large to admit of the protrusion of its trunk, which it sends out to a great length, and moves about in all directions with great facility."British Star-fishes,' p. 252. Professor Forbes figures one of these animals, which had taken up its quarters in an empty perriwinkle shell. Nothing, we think, can more clearly demonstrate the presence of an instinctive impulse towards self-preservation in this lowly animal than the proceedings above detailed. Allow that the Pagurus is impelled by instinct to choose an empty shell for the protection of its tender abdomen, and the same motive must be granted to actuate the Sipunculas in performing a similar action for a like purpose. Nor in either case can we see any other motive than that which directs the beaver in the construction of the habitation which is to serve as a shelter for himself and his progeny. The labors of the coral-polypes afford very striking examples of the exercise of instinct, while they exhibit the wonderful results of the combined efforts of numerous minute animals, which, individually, are comparatively powerless, and their organization very simple. In the formation of the immense coral reefs and islands, the natural instinct of these little animals leads them to build with the greatest rapidity to the windward, or most exposed side of their edifice, leaving the side least exposed to the action of the waves to be last completed. Their labors are also instinctively confined to low-water-mark, below which they do not build. Mr. Darwin has recorded in his journal much valuable information respecting the little architects and their wonderful structures. Even among the Infusoria, the thoughtful observer must recognise the influence of instinct when he views their varied movements and the elaborate apparatus with which many of these minute creatures are provided for the purpose of secaring their food. In the words of Dr. Mantell, "No organs of progressive motion, similar to those of beasts, birds, or fishes, are observable in these beings; yet they traverse the water with rapidity, without the aid of limbs or fins; and though many species are destitute of eyes, yet all possess an accurate perception of the presence of other bodies, and pursue and capture their prey with unerring purpose." * As has already been explained in this Review, these various motions are performed by means of minute hair-like filaments, termed cilia, which cover and fringe the bodies of the Infusoria; and we quote an accurate and spirited description of their movements from Dr. Carpenter's 'Zoology.' "These movements are extremely various in their character in different species; and when a number of dissimilar forms are assembled in one drop of water, the spectacle is most entertaining. Some propel themselves directly forwards, with a velocity which appears (when thus highly magnified) like that of an arrow, so that the eye can scarcely follow their movements; whilst others drag their bodies slowly along, like the leech. Some make a fixed point of some portion of the body, and revolve around it with great rapidity; whilst others scarcely present any appearance of animal motion. Some move forwards by an uniform series of gentle undulations or vibrations; whilst others seem to perform consecutive leaps, of no small extent compared with the size of their bodies. In short, there is no kind of movement which is not practised by these animalcules. They have evidently the power of steering clear of obstacles in their course, and of avoiding each other when swimming in close proximity. By what kind of sensibility the wonderful precision and accuracy of their movements is guided, is yet very doubtful." The mode in which these cilia subserve the purpose of procuring food may best be understood by studying the habits of the common wheel animacule (Rotifer vulgaris) which, from its activity, and the variety of its movements, is one of the most interesting of microscopic objects. This species, at its anterior extremity, is furnished with two sets of cilia, disposed in circles, forming what are termed the wheels; these are capable of being folded up and retracted within the body of the creature. When desirous of procuring food, the Rotifer fixes itself by the extremity of its telescope-like tail, and protrudes the cilia from the opposite extremity; by the vibration of the cilia, which is continued or suspended at the will of the animal, the appearance of a perfect rotation is produced, which has the effect of creating rapid currents in the surrounding fluid. A sort of whirlpool is caused by each wheel, and this brings towards the *No. 90, October, 1846. "The Microscope and its Revelations." mouth minute animacules and other bodies fence of life in these simple beings is manifloating in its neighborhood, many of which fested. The water enters by the smaller are drawn into the gullet, while others are orifices, traverses the smaller cavities of rejected and carried off by a return current. the spongy structure, and is eventually This proceeding has been likened by Spal- expelled by the larger orifices or vents. lanzani to that of a whale, which, having "This stream," says Dr. Carpenter, "is driven a shoal of herrings into a bay, by made apparent by the movement of the repeated blows of his tail produces a whirl-minute particles contained in it, and by pool of considerable extent and rapidity of the disturbance of those which may be motion, whereby the herrings are projected floating in the surrounding fluid ;" and he into the mouth of their pursuer. If this continues :-"It is impossible to assign a proceeding on the part of the whale be the cause for this movement; no cilia have been result of instinct, so must it also be consi- discovered in any part of the adult animal; dered when practised by the animalcule; and the tissues are altogether possessed of the object being the same, and the means so little contractility, that it is difficult to resorted to for securing it similar. suppose the fluid propelled through the tubes by any mechanical influence on their part." As this circulation of fluid ceases when the sponge is dead, we are inclined to view it as the instinctive means, the blind impulse, whereby the nutrition and growth of the organism are insured. From the water thus continually passing through its tissue, the sponge secretes its own peculiar organic texture, as well as the spicula of earthy matter, as carbonate of lime and silex, disposed among its tissues. But the passage of the water is of quite a different character from the ascent and descent of the sap in plants; since, in the latter, the fluid absorbed by the spongioles of the roots becomes gradually elaborated by the vital action of the plant into the various substances requisite for its nutrition and increase, all that escapes passing off by perspiration from the leaves; while the sponge would appear merely to select certain substances from the water in its passage, the greater portion being rejected, and expelled by the large orifices: the action being somewhat analagous to the entering and returning currents in the Infusoria, with this difference, that in the latter the cilia are obviously the motive organs. It would seem that both this beautiful creature and its near ally, Hydatina senta, together with some at least of the polypes, enjoy a considerable power of selection in regard to their food. A species of the latter family, Bowerbankia densa, about half an inch in length when fully expanded, is so transparent, that the whole of its structure and the actions of its organs may be seen through its integuments. Like the two Infusoria, the polyp attaches itself by its lower extremity, and protrudes its tentacula, which, like the cilia of the former, are ranged round its mouth, and seem to be completely under the control of the individual; these, when put in motion, produce a current of water, which brings the various substances floating in it to the entrance of the mouth. As in the Infusoria, some of these matters are received into the gizzard, while others are rejected; the gizzard, as in them, is furnished with teeth, which triturate the food before it passes into the stomach: all these actions present a curious analogy between animals belonging to two classes of different degrees of organization; and it is probable, that but for the extreme minuteness of many of the other Infusoria, numerous other actions Other organisms of a still more doubtful would be observed, which in combination description than the sponges are placed in with those already recorded, would remove this division of the animal kingdom by all doubt as to their being as certainly under the influence of instinct as animals of a much higher grade. The lowest position in the scale of animated beings, seems to be occupied by organisms which many naturalists have been rather inclined to place with plants; among these, the most conspicuous are the sponges and their allies. When studied in a living state, a constant and rapid circulation of water through their tissue, is almost the only action by which the exist some naturalists, though it seems now to be the prevalent disposition to consider them as of vegetable nature. Such are many of those beings long known as Confervas, and other plants of a very low organization. The chemical constituents of these, the lowest members of the two kingdoms, are so nearly the same, that it is only by the detection of a small quantity of starch in some of them that they can be recognised as plants; and even among these, the action of one of the most pow erful animal instincts has been observed: for in several of those now looked upon as plants, a kind of conjugation has been witnessed, leading to the production of a new individual, by which the race is continued; and animal motions are by no means of unfrequent occurrence. So that, even in these doubtful beings, instinct evidently holds its sway, directing them to the attainment of certain ends absolutely necessary to their well-being. In conclusion, we would briefly state our conviction, founded upon observation of the infinitely varied habits of animals, that every integral portion of the animal kingdom, from the highest to the lowest, has, according to its requirements, been furnished by its beneficent Creator with such a measure of an innate impulsive power as is sufficient to ensure the due performance of such actions as are necessary for the preservation of its own individual existence and the continuance of its kind. That these instincts, strictly so called-these impulses wholly unconnected with anything rational in the agent-are more and more curiously developed the lower we go in the animal creation. That in addition to what we strictly term instinct, animals are endowed with so much of a still higher faculty termed reason, as will direct them so to modify their instinctive impulses as to adapt their ordinary habits and actions to extraordinary circumstances. And as a general summary, we may adopt the words of the Archbishop : "To sum up, then, what has been hitherto said. It appears that there are certain kinds of intellectual power-of what, in man, at least, is always called reason-common, to a certain extent, to man with the higher brutes. And again, that there are certain powers wholly confined to man-especially all those concerned in what is properly called reasoning-all employment of language as an instrument of thought; and it appears that instinct, again, is to a certain extent common to man with brutes, though far less in amount, and less perfect in man; and more and more developed in other animals the lower we descend in the scale. "An Instinct is, as has been said before, a blind tendency to some mode of action, independent of any consideration on the part of the agent of the end to which the action leads. Hunger and thirst are no less an instinct in the adult than the desire of the new-born babe to suck, although it has no idea that milk is in the breast, or that it is nutritious, When, on the other hand, a man builds a house, in order to have shelter from the weather, and a comfortable place to pursue his trade, or reside in, the act is not called instinct; while that term does apply to birds building a nest; because man has not any blind desire to build the house. The rudest savage always contemplates, in forming the hut, the very object of providing a safeguard against the weather, and perhaps against wild beasts and other enemies. But, supposing man had the instinct of the bird; supposing a man who had never seen a house, or thought of protecting himself, had a tendency to construct something analagous to a nest; or, again, supposing a bird with a view to lay eggs therein, and sit on them, with a design, and in order to perpetuate its species: in the former case, man would be a builder from instinct; and in the latter, the bird would be a builder from reason.”—p. 20. was so endowed with reason as to build a nest TRAVELLERS IN ABYSSINIA.-Intelligence bas been received in Alexandria from the two enterprising French travellers, the Messieurs D'Abaddie, who have been for several years exploring Abyssinia and the adjacent countries for the benefit of science. A letter written from Alexandria on the 14th of March, 1845, reached them at Gondar, in the province of Dembea, on the 1st of May, 1847; and a letter despatched by them from Gondar on the 10th of May, 1847, reached Alexandria only on the 2nd ultimo. These two gentlemen have recently visited the sources of the White Nile. As they had previously formed many connexions in the country, they expected that this expedition would not have occupied more than four months from Goham; but two English travellers, Messrs. Plowden and Bell, having only a short time before killed a Galla chief, the Galla tribes had determined upon taking the lives of all Europeans falling into their hands, so that they had to proceed by a very indirect route, by which it took them a whole year to return to Gojam. They had the satisfaction of correctly ascertaining the sources of the White Nile, the principal one of which lies in latitude N. 7 deg. 49 min. 50 sec. They did not ascertain the longitude with any accuracy for want of an almanack, which they had not with them. The prothe incursions of the powerful Ras Aly with a vince of Gojam was in a state of war, owing to strong army. The Coptic patriarch had been formally expelled from Gondar and all the states subject to the Ras. The contending parties occupied all the principal roads in the country, and all communication with the sea-coast was interrupted. The Typhus fever was raging in the province of Sennaar. The two brothers, intended returning to Egypt, but the country they were in was in such a state of disorder, and they anticipated so many difficulties and obstacles on their road, that they had no hope of getting away for many months. LIGHT FROM ELECTRICITY.-Mr. Staite is lec turing in England on his new mode of lighting by electricity. The Literary and Philosophical So ciety of Sunderland gave a public soiree last November, at which his mode of lighting was the principal attraction. The Newcastle Guardian, says: "The light,which was of astonishing brilliance and beauty, was placed under an air-tight glass vase. When the gas was turned down it sufficiently lighted the spacious building, and bore the closest resemblance to the great orb of day of any light which we ever witnessed. The electric light was next exhibited in a vessel of water with equal success.” From the Quarterly Review. PRISON DISCIPLINE-THE SEPARATE SYSTEM. The following paper relates to a most important and interesting subject, and may be taken as an indication of the views on Prison Discipline which are, at present most prevalent in Europe. The facts it adduces will be read with profit, whatever may be thought of the conclusions and assertions of the writer.-ED.] 1. Reports of the Commissioners for Pen tonville Prison. 1843-1847. 2. Reports from the Committee of the Lords appointed to inquire into the Execution of the Criminal Law, especially respecting Juvenile Offenders and Transportation. 1847. 3. Prison Discipline. By Rev. John Field, M. A. 1846. 4. Traité des diverses Institutions Complémentaires du Régime Pénitentiaire. Par M. Bonneville, Procureur du Roi. 1847. sion supplying some of the strongest motives to the will. The opposed principle is simply and strictly educational-willing to inflict no more pain than is absolutely necessary to further the conversion of the individual, and postponing even this modicum to such other means as may effect that end without its aid. Under this system our jails are to become so many schools, where the only punishment, using the term in its ordinary acceptation, is about as much bodily restraint as is enforced in many of our own scholastic institutions and much less than that submitted to in the monasteries and convents of other countries. The contrast of the theories is brought out strikingly in the answers to the Committee on Criminal Law. crime. But I think I perceive in some of the theories of benevolent men such a mode of adminis tering the criminal law as to encourage instead of deterring." gradually attain the position in his mind of pertient, while the various officers of the prison will sons exercising the healing art, and be no longer regarded as the agents of vindictive power. I hold," says Lord Denman," the only legiOUR treatment of criminals is at this mo-timate end of punishment to be to deter from ment influenced by two theories, which are in their tendencies almost diametrically opposed to each other. "The principal object of punishment," says Mr. Baron By a reformatory system," says Mr. Hill, Parke, "I take to be the protection of so- we understand one in which all the pain endurciety by deterring the offender from the re-ed strictly arises from the means necessary to efpetition of his crime, and others from fol- fect a moral cure. A prison becomes a hospital for lowing his example, by the pain and incon-moral diseases. The prisoner may be called a pavenience he sustains; and the same opinion is maintained by almost all, if not by all, this eminent Judge's brethren, not only of the English but also of the Scotch and Irish Benches at this time. By these authorities-weighty and grave ones it will be owned-amendment is considered as secondary, and to be looked to only as it may aid in the further diminution of crime. On the other hand, the reformation of the culprit is the primary object in view of Lord Brougham, of Mr. Hill (the Recorder of Birmingham), and numerous reasoners some of whom have come to this conclusion on à priori grounds, other on the alleged failure of the system of "repression.' While we entertain some doubts as to the existence of any mental process which shall gradually confound a warder in the prisoner's estimation with a doctor, we can have none as to the rashness of expressions which invest the statutes at large with the caprice and the malice of unchastised passion. Legalized punishments may or may not be too severe; but in what sense is criminal law vindictive?-of what vindictive power is the turnkey the agent? Surely a vindictive Criminal Statute is as much a figure of speech as a hard-hearted It is of great importance that the public treadmill. Burke did not fear to brand should have definite notions on these anta- with stern censure the "loose comparigonized principles, so as to ascertain whi-sons" and "gross discriminations" of his ther, if fairly carried into practice, each day in the use of such terms as the poor will lead us. The "deterrent" acts on laborer," or the "poor soldier"--as if the the passion of fear in its various aspects of very foundations of the social structure disgrace, shame, and corporal pain-a pas- did not demand this condition in both classes of men. In our own times as much now before us, and you will find the poor notice is demanded by the currency of man tempted and tempting his offspring to phrases which tend to weaken the hands of some petty larceny which shall lay on the justice and fling into its scale a bias of parish, the county, or the country, the false philanthropy. Such cant might at burden of first supporting, ultimately of least be left to the melodramatist and the transporting him-a very natural consumnovelist of congenial fibre. mation of those doctrines which would con We have just seen it broadly stated that found a most extended and careful educato punish for the purpose of deterring tion with punishment. Offer to the humis not admissible save only as accessary bler classes of our countrymen the training and incidental. The general question of their children in the choicest spots of therefore is mooted-whether or not pu- the land, such as Parkhurst-absolve them nishment be just? We know how com- from all further care and cost--educate the plete a form the argument has assumed as child intellectually and morally-teach him relates to the pain of death, and it cannot a trade, and then take him, free of expense, be doubted that the effect of it has reach- to a good though distant labor-marketed the category of secondary punishments how few would be left to tenant our jails! also. But, in spite of these new theories, If you will believe, and act on the beis it the fact that the mind and conscience lief, that punishment has no tendency either of our nature have been changed; is it no to reform a culprit or to keep away from longer true there is that in every heart crime those who know that crime is puwhich proclaims or whispers that every de- nished-in short, that our fears have no inreliction of duty is worthy of chastisement? fluence on our conduct-allow the virtuous Are men now able to entertain the same parent at least such a perspective of good opinion of the thief as of the honest citi- for his child as you hold out to the depraved. zen? Hitherto, under every phasis of soWe are told that crimes are on the inciety it has been deemed just that crime crease, and that therefore punishment has should be punished. So strictly natural not acted as a deterrent. The answer is, and necessary has this seemed, that, in a that however the aggregate of offences may thousand acts of which no law can take continue to increase in a rapidly multiplycognizance, society inflicts a chastisement ing and condensing population, it by no ten times severer than that of the statute-means follows that they would not have inbook. The loss of character, for example, creased in a far greater ratio had there entails the loss of livelihood, and hence been no system of punishment in the counoften of life, under circumstances of great try. But how are we to get rid of the all mental and bodily suffering. Has all this but unanimous opinion of the Judges (there been a mistake? "Are we all," (as Car- is really, we think, only one exception)lyle says)," effeminated in this very dreary, that the relaxation has already been carried very portentous babble of abolishing capi- at least far enough? How are we to get tal punishment, &c.-all for sending Judas rid of the facts of their own experience Iscariot, Courvoisier, Praslin, Tawell, and which these Judges make? How are we to Nature's own Scoundrels teachable by hel-get rid of the facts adduced by Sir James lebore, to the schoolmaster instead of the Graham but a few months ago in Parliahangman or the cesspool? Are we for car-ment-showing that the relaxation of penalrying this new philanthropy out? Ought ties in some of the greatest crimes has been society to consider the liar, the slanderer, followed by a large increase in their numthe extortioner, the tyrant, the robber, the ber-that forgeries have increased 100, ravisher, the assassin-as merely laboring arson 60, and rape 90 per cent. since they under moral malady, fit therefore for the ceased to be capital offences? (Times, tender care which humanity bestows on the Friday, June 11, 1847.) fatalities of disease? Is it and has it all On the question of capital punishment along been a mere blunder to distinguish we shall not dwell-we have more than practically badness from madness? If so, enough before us without recurring to a we cannot stop where Mr. Hill contem-subject which has already been treated at plates. "Oh! that I could get my son some length in these pages. As respects placed at Mettray," said a French mother, the conflicting theories stated at the outset but that is impossible-he is neither a the Jurist-who could not be more worbeggar nor a thief.-Il n'a ni mendié ni thily represented than by Lord Denman, volé." Turn to any page of the Reports Lord Justice-General Boyle, and Lord |