AINTING is the art of representing on a flat surface, by means of lines and color, objects as they appear in nature that is to say, in such a manner that the picture produced shall, within certain limits, affect the eye in the same way as do the objects themselves. To be able to do this, thorough education of the mind, the eye and the hand is required. The mind. must learn the nature of the objects depicted, the eye how they appear, and the hand how to imitate them.

FORM.

In the first place, the painter must study the laws of form, and learn accurately to represent the bulk and figure of objects of every variety, whether organic or inorganic, at rest or in motion; secondly, he must acquire a knowledge of that portion of the science of optics which embraces the laws of color, light, and vision, including

Linear perspective-i. e. the effect produced upon the apparent form and grouping of objects by the position and distance of the observer; and aërial perspective-i. e. the effect produced on the bright

ness and color of objects by the various differences. in the temperature, atmosphere, light, etc. Thirdly, the painter must master the laws of light and shade, the right treatment of which is a most important element in painting.

The term chiaro-oscuro-from two Italian words, signifying light and shadow-has been given to the art of representing light and shadow, together with the effect of light and shadow on color, and it is, in fact, the expression in painting, drawing, or engraving of the infinite variety of effects of brightness and shade in nature,-the faithful rendering of the sharp contrasts, the subtle combinations and rapid changes which nature exhibits in her ever-varying moods. The greatest masters of chiaro-oscuro were Titian, Correggio, Rubens, and Rembrandt; and, in our own day, Turner.

COLOR.

Lastly, and perhaps chiefly, the painter must know the laws of color; he must train his eye to recognize the most subtle gradations of tint, as well as the most vividly contrasted colors in nature, and learn not only what will be the result of the use of separate colors, but also the infinitely varied effects of harmony or contrast which may be obtained by their combinations.

The three primary colors are red, yellow, and blue, which are the constituents of white light. Every variety of tint produced is a combination of two or more of these three. The secondary colors are

mixtures of any two of the primary: thus red and yellow produce orange; yellow and blue, green; red and blue, violet or indigo, according to the quantities of each ingredient. The tertiary colors are those fine shades obtained by mingling two or more of the secondary ones. The complementary color of any given shade or tint is that which will have to be added to it to produce white.

The ancients added black, or total absence of light, white, or fullness of light, and half-tints to the three primary colors.

Contrast of color is of great importance in heightening in a picture the force of the colors contrasted; any two of the primary colors are good contrasts to each other.

Harmony of color is the preservation of the same character of coloring in the whole of a picture: to retain it, without producing monotony, requires the greatest skill. The greatest colorists were Titian, Tintoretto, Giorgione, Correggio, Paolo Veronese, Rubens, and Van Dyck.

The tone of a picture is the general quality of shadow, of light, or of color prevailing throughout an entire picture. The phrase a "high" or a "low" tone are used to express either a forcible or a subdued rendering of these qualities.

COMPOSITION.

Composition is the assembling together of the different objects to be represented in the picture in such a manner that they shall combine to produce a harmonious impression on the eye as a whole, and shall each engage a suitable share of attention.

The terms foreground, middle distance, and background have been given, the first to the portion of a picture nearest to the spectator, the second to that somewhat removed from him, and the third to that farthest off.

MATERIALS.

Having thus given a slight outline of the leading principles of the theory of Painting, we will briefly enumerate the materials and processes employed in its practice.

In speaking of the materials we must distinguish between those painted on, and those painted with. For drawing, crayons of different kinds are used; for painting, a brush to hold the color.

1. For drawing on paper, parchment, ivory or

other similar substances-pencils, chalks, charcoal, and water colors are used.

2. For painting on wood and canvas-tempera or distemper, and oil colors.

3. For painting on wall surfaces, dry colors, tempera, wax colors, and fresco colors.

The so-called lead-pencils employed in drawing do not contain any lead, but are made of graphite or plumbago, an opaque grayish-black mineral with a metallic luster, somewhat greasy to the touch, which produces a clear stroke of any thickness required, and peculiarly suitable for rapid sketching on account of the ease with which it may be effaced.

Black chalk is a bluish or grayish-black material, used both for drawing and as a color in painting; but it is neither easy to work with nor pleasant to handle, and charcoal is preferred to it for all but small sketches.

The scarcity of colored chalks has led to the use of pastel, or chalk mixed with various colors and made into crayons, but it is not very durable, and if pictures in it are washed with gum to preserve them, they lose the soft, warm appearance which is their chief charm.

Charcoal is well suited for sketching the outlines of large works. It produces a broad stroke adhering so slightly to the ground that it may be blown away without leaving a trace. If, however, the ground be washed with lime-water and allowed to dry before the sketch is made, the charcoal will set. Nearly all large cartoons (i. e. designs on strong paper or pasteboard of the full size of the work to be executed) of modern times are drawn in charcoal, although Kaulbach, the great German fresco-painter, sometimes used chalk. Cartoons drawn in charcoal have played an important part in the history of art. ever since Michelangelo's cartoons for his frescoes were exhibited in Florence in 1504; and some of considerable value have been produced in our own day. In working with both chalks and charcoal, the stump, a bluntly pointed implement made of leather, is largely used in working the shadows.

In figure-painting, the artist uses a living model for the study, of the formation of the body and the surface of the flesh, and a lay-figure on which to arrange the drapery. The lay-figure was, it is said, invented by Fra Bartolommeo.

In water-color painting, prepared colors, consisting of coloring matter mixed with honey or gum