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PREFACE

A MAN cannot harbor a more laudable ambition than to make the most of those talents with which he has been endowed. It is the part of human nature to hope for success. For most of us the attainment of our ideals is a task that calls forth our utmost efforts. Any achievement must begin with self-analysis. When Socrates urged his disciples to adopt his doctrine, "Know thyself," he was offering sage counsel. Fortunately, psychology has discovered certain principles which serve as helpful guides to self-knowledge and self-realization. It is the purpose of this book to show how the process of compensation for inferiority provides the channel through which handicaps can be made to contribute to the development of power.

The psychology of Alfred Adler is taken as the basis for our study of normal personality (Chap. I). Analysis of the self-regarding sentiment indicates that the person with marked deficiencies is peculiarly susceptible to the will-to-power (Chap. II), by reason of the various kinds of inferiority (Chap. III) that trouble him. Compensation will be worked out in detail to demonstrate how the accomplishment of certain purposes is rendered possible (Chap. IV). The consciousness of inferiority arouses the mighty forces of the instinctive and emotional life (Chap. V) and sets the conditions that favor the attainment of distinction in art, religion, learning, and other paths to power (Chap.

VI). The application of the theory to various social groups will be illustrated by an analysis of the motivation behind labor movements, the Feminists, the Jews, and others (Chap. VII). Studies of Arthur Schopenhauer (Chap. VIII) and Abraham Lincoln (Chap. IX) will give an insight into the way the individual works out his compensation.

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The motivation scheme of inferiority-compensation is not set forth as the one principle by which all behavior can be psychologically explained. The step from self-abasement to self-assertion cannot account for all the actions of men. Freud introduces sex as the sole motive in human activities; Adler elects organ inferiority as the one basis for psychoanalysis. It seems that a more sane attitude with which to face the problems of motivation is to study a variety of factors, for human nature has many diverse sides. No one theoretical doctrine can suffice to describe adequately the heterogeneous trends of human conduct. In outlining the details of the inferiority-compensation process, it is not claimed that the theory exhausts the principles by which behavior can be analyzed. Compensation for inferiority does play a role, however, and a very important one, in human motives. Though it should be supplemented by other views of the origin of motives, the theory of compensation remains a valuable scheme upon the basis of which we can better understand the paths that lead to superiority and the realization of our ideals.

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In these days when so much stress is being laid upon mental hygiene, the process of compensation deserves thorough study. The capacity to compensate is a powerful aid toward the preservation of mental bal

ance. Take the child who finds he is at a disadvantage in some respect in his relations with his playmates. Perhaps he is so frail that he cannot participate in the rough games in which most strong children indulge. Instead of brooding over his handicap and upsetting himself emotionally, he takes to books and outshines the other children in the class room. John Richard Green, the historian, was so sickly as a boy that play held little charm for him. Cut off from the physically active side of life, he learned to find his delight in books. Similarly, James Watt, realizing that he was too delicate to enter sports, grew fond of study, reflection, and solitude. Scholastic superiority gives the frail child something to brag about, wins the praise of his teachers and his parents, and enables him to keep his selfrespect, an essential element in mental health. "The elements which the Individual Psychologists have found most necessary to the development of a child into a useful social being are a good relation with the rest of humanity and the feeling that he is equal to other children." Every child has some talent that should be developed as one means of establishing a psychic (mental) stability. Observation should seek out the special capacities and encouragement should be given for their training. Adler's chief contribution, according to the estimate of Fishbein, has been his pedagogical achievements in Vienna where he has done much to correct evil trends in childhood. There is a wealth of wisdom in the jesting remark that whenever a man has one leg that is shorter, the other is always longer. It is the longer leg that gives a man satisfaction.

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1 Alfred Adler: "Character and Talent," Harper's Monthly Magazine 1927, 155, 72.

This study was originally a thesis presented for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Harvard University. The work has been rewritten in the interests of simplicity and clearness. Chapter IV originally appeared in the Psychological Review, November, 1926. To Professor English Bagby is due the credit for stimulating the interest that has found its outlet through this channel. The author wishes to acknowledge the kindly criticism and helpful counsel of Professor William McDougall. Valuable suggestions from his mother, father, and wife, have been incorporated in the book.

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