The bearing of all this upon the psychology of religion is direct. For the points at which the sharpest conflicts occur between new functions and old are the points at which religious consciousness is most acute. Here the religious experience itself is a revaluation of values, a reconstruction of life's enterprise, a change in desire and in the ends of conduct. Consider the evolutionary significance of prophetism of the ethical type. The prophet calls upon the people to like what they do not like, and in the long run he makes them do it. His own generation evolve. (2) The inclusion of mental functions within the concept of evolution was accomplished long ago in the recognition of mind as a favorable variation. (3) Whether mental functions, thus included in the concept of evolution, are all of a kind, or whether there are several kinds; and if there are several, whether they all appear at a single point (remaining thereafter a constant) or whether they appear successively— these questions must be determined by empirical inquiry. (4) Such inquiry must include among its data the manifestations of mind in the cultural history of man. To stop where biology leaves off would be an arbitrary procedure, and it would settle important questions by an a priori rather than an empirical method. (5) The evolutionary process might conceivably be or become self-guiding in part or in whole. The human species may yet deliberately control human reproduction so as to select, by thought analysis, the variations that are to be perpetuated and accumulated. In such a case a new desire would appear, a new mental function which would in some measure displace natural selection. A eugenist who employs argument as a means of producing a better species should be the last person to question the proposition that mental functions change, and that the term "evolution" applies in the strictest sense to such changes. (6) It follows that the cultural heritage of the race may be more than an accumulation of instruments organized and directed by merely primordial impulses. As a matter of fact, education aims, as Thorndike points out, "to make men want the right things..... We have to make use of nature, to co-operate with each other, and to improve ourselves" (Education [New York, 1912], p. 11). Education is always selective. It never seeks to transmit the whole present social purpose, but only certain parts of it that are regarded as worthy of being strengthened as against other parts. Therefore the cultural history of the race is not a record of "growth" merely, but also of changes in the directions taken by the whole racial movement. The appropriate designation for such changes seems to be "the evolution of functions."

may stone him, but a later one builds him a monument. The prophetic spirit, in both the leader and the led, is the human spirit attempting the hard thing where the easy thing might seem to suffice. In the JewishChristian form prophetism "takes trouble" about the oppressed, when this means loss of profits. Men are attracted, in spite of themselves, toward a vision of brotherhood that will take away many a hard-won social advantage. They accept a social-ethical thought of God that causes discomfort to those who seriously entertain it, for it makes them condemn themselves. But men must like even this; else would they not build monuments to the prophets!

Our discussion of religious groups and of religious leadership shows that in much religion the prophetic spirit is not clearly in evidence. Yet the extent of it is by no means small. Where is there an instance of a religious leader whom the world calls great who has achieved his influence with the people by maintaining existing standards, much less by lowering them? Certainly Zarathustra, Gautama, Jesus, and Mohammed were reformers of standards. Every one of them took the harder road, every one of them was attractive to men because of the very thing that made the road hard.'

I

1 A fine example of the process may be found in the earliest Gathas or hymns of Zoroastrianism. Zarathustra the prophet feels himself called to deliver to the people ("the kine") a message which he realizes will go against their inclinations. The content of this message brings together the following ideas: economic needs; protection from enemies; the sin of shirking work; the sin of lying; free choice between good and evil, and the determination of destiny by such choices; the duty of joining with the god of light and truth, Ahura Mazda, in his contest with Ahriman, the spirit of evil; clear recognition that this contest between good and evil exists also within ourselves; the ultimate overthrow

An oft-repeated phenomenon of the prophetic consciousness is shrinking in the presence of an overwhelming task. But afterward the prophet is sustained by the very greatness of his cause.

At points like these mental evolution is not motion in the line of least resistance; it is the evocation of resistance; it is the creation of problems and of difficulties-it is the clearest sort of creative evolution.2

of Ahriman and the triumph of the good. Here we behold ethical idealism growing out of the soil of daily labor-idealism that requires self-conquest and preference for the hard task, yes, participation in an undertaking of cosmic import. See Sacred Books of the East, XXXI, 1–90.

* "Ah, Lord Jahwe! behold, I know not how to speak; for I am a child," pleads Jeremiah (Jer. 1:6), and Isaiah cries, "Woe is me! for I am undone; because I am a man of unclean lips, and I dwell in the midst of a people of unclean lips” (Isa. 6:5).

2 To a rather surprising extent the founders of minor religions and of sects, as well as the great founders and prophets, get their influence with the people by giving them something harder to do. Alongside of insistence upon a particular dogma, form of worship, or mode of ecclesiastical government, even alongside of desire for health, or for wealth, or for social recognition and power, we find self-denial, ethical austerity, a fine growth of gentleness and of mercy that cost self-discipline. A good recent example is John Alexander Dowie. He was a healer, a dogmatist, a shrewd organizer of a great economic enterprise. Yet I have heard him preach ethical standards with definiteness and power such as I have rarely witnessed in the sermons of other preachers. It was apparently the aspiring, self-overcoming factors in his movement that gave it a chief part of its power with people.

A similar remark applies to Mrs. Eddy, though with modifications. To the question, Why do so many persons follow Christian Science ? the usual answer is that desire for health is the essential motive power of the whole movement. Another motive, no doubt, is desire for peace of mind in a restless age. But discipleship requires also a sort of daring, a letting go of old supports (whether drugs or public sentiment), and no little self-discipline. It is almost inconceivable that Mrs. Eddy could have attained her remarkable influence by her healings and her mental anodynes alone. There had to be the self-overcoming element also.

The obverse of the prophetic spirit is the sense of sin in the stricter meaning of this term, that is, disapproval of one's self in the light of a law or of a divine command that one freely approves. Paul's classical description represents it as disapproval of and struggle against the very thing that one likes. This should be distinguished from the so-called "sense of sin" that consists essentially in discomfort in the presence of something that one wants to escape. In Paul's case the sinner desires to cling to the very standard that causes the distress.

One sometimes hears the statement that the sense of sin is a universal mark of religion. This is not true unless "sin" be taken very broadly, as is done in translations of early religious literature that use this term for such things as offending an arbitrary god whom one scarcely loves or admires or approves at all. The offense called sin may even be accidental. The term "sin" is used, likewise, to name violations of a ceremonial code, as by entering a holy place, or by touching a tabooed object. Here the "sense of sin" is little more than fear of approaching calamity, and "repentance" is a sort of running to cover. The worth-whileness of the divine will or of the law that makes the trouble is scarcely considered at all, but rather avoidance of the trouble.

Yet even these crude fears, by virtue of their anthropomorphism, their sympathy with the offended spirit or god, contain the germ of a more exalted experience of sin and repentance. It is remarkable to see the sinner exalting the moral character of the offended divinity, and then taking his side, as in the Fifty-first Psalm. Here is actual desire that the god's point of

view, which condemns and gives pain, should prevail. Then comes a realization that human nature requires reconstruction. This idea, already present in the great psalm of penitence, reaches its classical expression in the cry of Paul, "What I hate, that I do. . . . . Wretched man that I am! who shall deliver me out of this body of death?" Theoretical interest in this phenomenon turned, unfortunately, to the problem of the origin and the mode of transmission of "original sin." Men fought over the relation of it to Adam, but they failed to see that human nature's recognition of its own defects, wherever this recognition occurs, is part of a reconstructive process that has already set in, a part of the evolution of mental functions.

In our day the sense of sin has become, in an appreciable degree, a realization on the part of individuals that they participate in a social order that is in large measure unjust. Looking backward to Jesus' ideal of a loving society-a divine-human family-and then at the ways in which contemporary society prevents men from learning to love one another, and at the actual exploitation of men, women, and children-body and soul—for profit, many a Christian has come to realize that salvation cannot consist for any of us in establishing a private relation of harmony with God. Our sinfulness is conjoint, co-operative, and our salvation accordingly must be wrought out in a reconstruction of society. We are in the act of achieving a social conscience by revaluation /of our values.

A little way back a hint was given that by comparing new wants with old we might conceivably discover laws of the functional evolution of mind. Certainly some of