well on a pasture or on natural food. Some people wean calves almost entirely on linseed tea.

Summer Treatment-When the weather is warm and the flies become troublesome, they ought not to be left in their pasture without shade or shelter. If well shaded during the heat of the day, and supplied with pure water and some green food in their cribs, they will most likely continue to thrive ; but if left to be tormented with flies, huddled together in a corner of their pasture, or in a wet ditch, they will probably become unhealthy. It may here be remarked that, on first leaving the cow-house, the calf should be confined in a safe place in the yard or elsewhere for a day or two, until it becomes accustomed to the bright light of day, as on its first introduction it appears almost blind, and would be likely to run into danger. A change of pasture now and then is desirable, but calves should not be put into low wet meadows, as it is generally in such situations that they get diseased with a husky cough. As the fall approaches the grass will be less nutritious, it will then be necessary to give them some food in their yard or shed, such as pulped roots mixed with cut straw chaff, every night. A little salt mixed with their chaff is a good thing, and is believed by some people to prevent "hove."

When frost begins they should not be turned into their pasture till nine or ten o'clock, or till it disappears. Their racks, cribs, and mangers, or whatever they feed or drink from, should constantly be kept clean, and the herdsman should be urged to feed and water them regularly, and to keep them well supplied with dry bedding.

As winter approaches they would be best confined to the yard and shed, where, if well sheltered and fed regularly with a proper quantity of pulped roots, turnips or mangold, mixed with straw chaff sprinkled with a little salt, they will thrive fast enough till the spring, when they can return to their pastures, or be provided with green food; they should be carefully treated as before recommended. The upland pastures are best for young stock.

Some people allow heifers to have calves when only two years old, but they seldom (if ever) make such good cows as those that are left free till they are three years of age.

Young stock brought up as here recommended will generally thrive fast, and be free from disease.

Cost of Keep-Cows are large consumers of food, and should not be stinted when in milk. Heifers will require nothing but green food in the dry summer months; but as the winter approaches they should be sheltered in a yard at night, and a little fresh barley or oat straw given them in their cribs; whenever the pastures become injured by frost, both young and old cows require improved food in their sheds. A few Swedish turnips or mangold roots should then be given them, which, if pulped and mixed with sweet chaff (one-fourth hay), would be sufficient to keep them in healthy condition; but this applies only to those that are not in milk. When within two months of calving, all cows should be dried, for, if not then dried, they will not produce so much milk the next year. They should afterwards have their food improved by an additional weight of roots with their chaff, which should be mixed in a heap over-night. By the morning it will be found to have heated a little, which imparts a flavor that is much relished by the cows.

Consumption of Food. -As was before remarked, cows are large consumers of food," and no wonder that they should re. quire an abundance, to enable them to supply so rich a sustenance for mankind, as well as to support themselves. Where there are no good dry pastures to provide them with plenty for their summer keep, they would do very well in a proper feedinghouse (enclosed on the north and south sides) with a door at each end, if they were liberally supplied with green food, cut for them and put in racks: such as rye grass, clover, tares. It has been found that milk as abundant and butter quite as good have been produced by cows so fed, as by those which had the run of rich pastures. But where there are pastures it would be well to have the cows housed in hot weather, when insects are troublesome; or else they will be worried and heated and unable to feed, and will fall off in their produce of milk.

A large cow will consume a cwt. of green food per day. When green food is scarce, as is generally the case at the end of a dry summer, a little linseed-cake or bean-meal, mixed with cut chaff (one third hay), should be given them to keep up the produce of milk, lest part of the best season for dairying should be lost by its failure.

It is not good economy to feed cows on much uncut hay, for they would consume and spoil a cwt. a day, if fed entirely on it. Much less expensive and more natural condiments can be made by a mixture of bean, barley, maize, or linseedmeal, and other produce of the soil by cow-keepers themselves.

Milk Dairies.-When cows are kept only for the purpose of producing a large quantity of milk, brewers' grains are given them, with a small portion of hay, for ruminating purposes. On this they do tolerably well, but it will be found to their advantage if about three or four pounds of bean-meal be mixed with the grains for each cow per day.

Winter Food.-In winter and spring, Swedish turnips, mangold, and other root crops would be found more economical food than the grains, meal, and hay last mentioned. A bushel of pulped roots mixed with about fourteen pounds of cut chaff, one-third hay, and given them twice a day, would be found sufficient to satisfy a moderate-sized cow, but they should not be stinted or confined to any quantity if they are found to require more. Cabbages, carrots, and parsnips are very good food for milch cows if given in moderate quantities with other food. It is important that all roots should be freed from earth before pulping, or given to the cows, otherwise it would impart an unpleasant flavor to the cream. When cows are fel on pulped roots, with cut chaff, a peck or two of malt-dust ("combs") would be a nice addition, as it would give a zest to the mixture. A sufficient quantity for the whole herd should be put into a heap about twelve hours before it would be wanted, when it would be found to have acquired a little warmth and a fragrant smell, which would give the cows a greater relish for it.

A change of green or succulent food appears to promote the secretions of the system, and to give stimulus to their action Such as would injure the flavor of milk should be avoided. White turnips and cabbages will do this, if given without a good supply of other food with them.

EARLY HISTORY AND HABITS OF THE HORSE.

HE EARLY HISTORY AND ORIGIN OF THE HORSE ) is wrapped in obscurity

and fable, and we really know little or nothing of it, except that we have reason to believe that he first came from Asia, like man, and, according to the Mosaic account, all other animals now existing; and that he was used in Egypt more than 1600 years before Christ. But with the history of the horse we shall not encumber

this book, which might be enlarged to an enormous extent if this department were entered into at length. Suffice it, then, to discuss the present condition of the horse, and its more recent origin, in addition to his general habits.

THE HABITS OF THE HORSE, in all countries, and of all varieties, are pretty much alike. Wherever he is at large, he is bold, but wary, and easily taking note of the approach of man, to give him as wide a berth as he possibly can, or rather show him a clean pair of heels. Wild horses exist to the present day

in the interior of Asia and in South America. But both the horses of the Tartars and those of La Plata are descended from the domesticated animals, and can scarcely be called wild in the ordinary acceptation of the term. From their constant state of liberty, and their roving habits, in order to obtain food and water, they are inured to fatigue, and can bear an enormous amount of long-continued fast work, without failing under it, and without that training which the domesticated animal must have. The walk and the gallop are the horse's natural paces, and all others are acquired; but nothing can exceed the fiery animation and elegance of movement of the free horse; and in these two paces art has done nothing to improve his form, except, perhaps, in slightly increasing the speed of the latter. In all countries, and in every age, the horse feeds upon grain or grass, though it is said that in Arabia he is occasionally supported upon camel's milk, when food such as he usually lives upon is not to be had.

It may be useful to specify the terms employed to describe the principal parts of the horse. These details will not prove altogether superfluous, as some of the words we are about to explain not unfrequently occur in conversation.

The two parts of the head of the horse which correspond to the temples in a man are above the eyes. The eyes themselves have a loose crescentiform fold of the conjunctiva at the inner angle, often errone

ously called membrana nictitans, but it neither performs its office or possesses its muscular apparatus. The orbit, which is formed of seven bones, four cranial and three facial, contains the globe of the eye, on the inner angle of which is situated the haw. The eye-pits are deep indentations which lie between the eye and the ear, above the eyebrows on each side.

The face is the front of the head from the eyes to the nostrils; this part corresponds to the upper part of a man's nose. This name is, however, generally applied to that portion that surrounds the curl or centre on the forehead from whence the hair radiates.

The neck of the horse is designated by the word crest; it is comprised from one end to the other between the mane on the upper side and the gullet on the lower. The fore-lock is the portion of the mane which is on the top of the head and falls over on the forehead between the eyes.

The withers is the spot where the shoulders meet up above, between the back and the neck, at the point where the neck and the mane come to an end. The chest is that part which is in front between the shoulders and below the throat.

The back commences at the withers and extend all along the spine as far as the crupper. When the horse is fat, the whole length of the spine forms a kind of hollow which is said to be channeled.

The space which is included within the ribs is called the barrel; the name of stomach is also given to the lower part of the body which joins the os sternum and the bottom of the ribs.

The flanks lie at the extremity of the stomach and extend as far as the hip-bones. The tail is divided into two parts: the stump or dock, and the hair.

The upper part of the front leg of the horse is called the shoulder although it corresponds with the fore-arm in a man; the fore-arm follows it lower down.

The joint which is below the fore-arm is called the hnee; it corresponds to the place of the wrist in man, forms an angle turning inwards when the leg is bent.

The shank forms the second portion of the foreleg; it commences at the knee-joint, and corresponds to the metacarpus in man.

Behind the shank is a tendon, which extends from one end to the other, and is called the back-sinew. The fetlock-joint is the articulation immediately below the shank.

The fetlock itself is a tuft of hair covering a sort of soft horny excrescence, which is called the ergot. The pastern is the portion of the leg between the fetlock-joint and the foot.

The coronet is an elevation lying below the pastern, and is furnished with long hair falling over the hoof, all round the foot.

The hoofs form, so to speak, the nails of the horse, and consist of a horny substance.

In order to describe the parts which make up the hind legs of the horse, we must go back to the haunches. Each of these contains the femur, and corresponds to the thigh of a man. It is, therefore, the thigh of the horse, which is joined on to the body, and bears the name of buttocks. It is terminated below and in front by the stifle which is the joint of the knee containing the knee-pan. It is situated below the haunch, on a level with the flank, and shifts its place when the horse walks.

The highest part of the hind leg, which is detached from the body, is called the thigh, or gaskins, and corresponds to the leg of a man. It extends from the stifle and lower part of the buttocks down to the hock.

The hock is the joint which is below the thigh, and bends forward. This joint represents the instep in a man; the hinder part of the hock, which is called the point of the hock, is the heel.

Below the hock are the shank, the fetlock-joint, the pastern, and the foot, just the same as in the fore-legs.

We will now say a few words as to the diversity of color in the coat of the horse, in order to fix the meaning of the terms which are generally employed to designate the various hues which the coat pre

sents.

Bay is a reddish nut-brown color, with various shades. Dark bay horses are of a very dark brown, almost black, except on the flanks and tip of the nose, where they are of a reddish color. The golden, or light bay, is a yellow sun-light hue. Dappled bay horses have on their rumps spots of a darker bay than on the rest of their bodies. In bay horses the extremities, the mane, and the tail are always black.

There are three kinds of black horses: the rusty black, which is of a brownish tinge, more or less conspicuous in various lights; the black, and the coalblack, which is the darkest of all.

Dun-colored horses, of which there are several

shades, are of a yellowish-sandy hue; the mane and tail of these are either white or black. Some of the latter have a black line along the vertebræ, which is called a mule's, or eel-stripe.

Chestnut is a kind of reddish or cinnamon-colored bay. There are several shades of it, among which are the bright chestnut, which is the color of a red cow's coat; the common chestnut, which is neither dark nor bright; the bay chestnut, which verges upon the red; the burnt chestnut, which is dark, and nearly approaches black. Some chestnut horses have white manes and tails, others black. The roan is a mixture of red and white.

Gray horses have white hair mixed with black or bay. There are several modifications of this color; the dappled-gray, the silver-gray, the iron-gray, etc. Dapple-gray horses have on the back and other parts of the body a number of round spots, in some cases black in others of a lighter hue; these spots are somewhat irregularly distributed. Gray horses as they increase in age become lighter in color, ultimately becoming white.

Piebald and skewbald horses are white, with large irregular spots and stripes of some other color irregularly arranged. The different kinds are distinguished by the color that is combined with the white, as the piebald proper, which are white and black; the skewbald, which are white and bay; the chestnut piebald, which are white and chestnut.

The horses which have small black spots on a white or gray coat are called flea-bitten, particularly prevalent in India among Arabs.

We have hitherto considered the wild and domestic horse in common, both as regards their structure and their color, in short, their outward appearance generally, without noticing the different breeds, which must soon occupy our attention. But before we enter upon the study of the various equine races, it is necessary to give a short explanation as to the way in which the bit regulates the paces of the horse. this we are led to speak of the construction of the mouth, a knowledge of which is most useful.

By

The horse either walks, trots, gallops, or ambles. The paces of the horse are essentially modified by means both of the bit and spur. The spur excites a quickness of movement; the bit communicates to this movement a due amount of precision. The mouth of the horse is so sensitive that the least movement or the slightest impression which it receives warns

and regulates the motion of the animal. But to pre serve the full delicacy of this organ, it is highly ne cessary to treat tenderly its extreme sensibility.

The position of the teeth in the jaw of the horse affords to man the facility which exists in placing a bit in its mouth, by which instrument this highspirited and vigorous animal is broken in and guided. Let us, therefore, in the first place, study the arrange ment of its mouth.

There are in each jaw six incisors, or fore-teeth, followed on either side by a tush, which is generally deficient in mares, especially in the lower jaw. Next comes a series of six grinders on each side in both jaws; these teeth have a square crown, marked with four crescents, formed by the lamina of enamel which are embedded on them. Between the tushes and the grinders there is a considerable space called the bar, which corresponds to the angle of the lips; and it is in this interval that the bit is placed.

It is also by means of the teeth that we are enabled to know a horse's age-a knowledge which is of the highest utility; for a horse increases in value in proportion as he approaches maturity, again decreasing in worth as he becomes older. Up to nine years the age can be determined pretty accurately by means of the changes which take place in the teeth.

The foal, at his birth, is usually devoid of teeth in the front of the mouth, and has only two grinders on each side in each jaw. At the end of a few days, the two middle fore-teeth, or pincers, make their appearance. In the course of the first month a third grinder shows itself, and in four months more the two next fore-teeth also emerge; within six and a half or eight months the side incisives, or corner teeth, show, and also a fourth grinder. At this period the first dentition is complete. The changes which take place up to the age of three years depend only on the fore-teeth being worn away more or less, and the black hollows being obliterated gradually by contact with food. In thirteen to sixteen months the cavities on the surface of the pincers are effaced; they are then said to be razed. In sixteen to twenty months the intermediate fore-teeth are likewise razed, and in twenty to twenty-four months the same thing takes place with the corner teeth.

The second dentition commences at the age of two and a half or three years. The milk-teeth may be recognized by their shortness, their whiteness, and the construction round their base called the neck of

the tooth. The teeth which replace them have no necks, and are much larger. The pincers are the first to fall out and be replaced by new ones. At the age of from three years and a half to four years the intermediate fore-teeth experience the same change, and the lower tushes begin to make their appearance. The corner teeth are also renewed when between four and a half to five years; the upper tushes likewise pierce the gums, and about the same date the sixth grinder shows itself.

A depression, or small hollow, may be noticed on the surface of the crown of the second growth of fore-teeth, just as in the milk-teeth, and these hollows are gradually worn away in the same fashion. The pincers of the lower jaw lose their cavities when the horse is five or six years old; the intermediate fore-teeth are the next to raze. The marks in the corner-teeth are obliterated at the age of seven or eight years. The process of destruction of the marks in the upper fore-teeth goes on in the same order, but more tardily.

When all these various changes have taken place, the horse is looked upon as aged, because the teeth no longer furnish any certain indications as to the age of the animal. Only approximate inferences can now be drawn from the length and color of the tusks, which become more and more bare and projecting from the gum, etc.

The domestication of the horse appears to date back to the very earliest period of his appearance on earth; and as this animal adapts itself to every necessity, every want, and every climate, its subjection has resulted in a considerable number of races, distinguished by more or less prominent characteristics of shape, strength, temper, and endurance. Although generally intelligent, affectionate, and endowed with considerable powers of memory, these qualities in the horse are essentially modified by education and climate. And for the full development of his intelligence and his high qualities, it is requisite that man should be his companion and his friend, as well as his master, but never his tyrant. Under the whip of an unfeeling driver, the horse becomes brutalized, and rapidly degenerates, morally even more than physically.

The attachment of the horse for those who treat it kindly is a well-known fact.

The influence of memory on the horse is shown by the sense it retains of injuries and ill-treatment it

has suffered. Many a horse is restive with persons who have misused it, while perfectly docile with others, proving a consciousness of good and evil, and a natural insubordination against tyranny and injustice.

PRESENT VARIETIES OF THE HORSE. THE Arabian is still one of the most distinct varieties of this noble animal, and also one of the most prized, being eagerly sought for by Turks and Christians in Asia, Southern Russia, India, and even in Australia. In his native deserts he is still sometimes to be seen in a half-wild state, though most probably owned by some of the " dwellers in tents" peculiar to that region. But it is the more domestic breed with which we have chiefly to do, and which is carefully preserved in a pure state by the chiefs of he various tribes, though it is supposed not so free from stain now as was formerly the case. The head of the Arab is the most beautiful model in nature, giving the idea of courage, tempered with docility and submission to man, better than any other animal, and even more so than the dog. It is seldom, perhaps, that so beautiful a frame exists; but examples are not wanting of such a union of elegance with perfectly good and useful points. The length and muscularity of the fore-arm are also remarkable, and the setting on of the tail is peculiarly high-points which have generally been transmitted to our thorough-bred horses descended from Arabian blood. Many imported horses of this breed are exceedingly wicked and full of tricks, but in India, as a rule, he is quite the reverse. Το the modern sportsman also he is valuable, because he faces the elephant and the tiger better than any other breed. In height he is generally a little under fifteen hands; and in color either bay, black, or gray. It is said that there are three distinct breeds of Arabians even now-the Attechi, a very superior breed; the Kadischi, mixed with these, and of little value; and the Kochlani, highly prized, and very difficult to procure. If this is true, it may account for the very different results produced by breeding from modern Arabs and those introduced in the eighteenth century.

The Barb is an African horse, of smaller size but coarser make than the Arabian, and evidently fed upon more nutritious food. As his name implies, his native land is Barbary; but there is always great doubt about the particular breed to which imported horses belong, because they are carried considerable distances from their native plains, and are also even then much mixed in blood. It has frequently been said that the Barb is the progenitor of one root of the best English stock, and that the Godolphin Arabian, as he was called, belonged to this blood; but the disputed point cannot possibly be settled, and there seems only one argument in favor of the supposition, founded upon his enormously high crest; while his superior size, being 15 hands high, argues just as strongly in favor of Arab descent. But the Spanish horse is no doubt descended from the Barb, this breed having been carried into Spain by the Moors when they overran the country; and, as the appear. ance of the Spanish horse is totally opposed to that of the descendants of Godolphin, it is a still stronger proof of his Arabian ancestry, or, at all events, an argument against his claim to Barbary as a native clime.