in cases where no ambiguity can arise, they should be distinguished by the repetition of the demonstrative. Ex. The red and blue vestments were most admired," should be, "the red and the blue vestments," if two kinds are intended. But we may say,, "the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, because the attributives are incompatible in their signification.

67. Construction is the arrangement of words in sentences, and of sentences in relation to each other, so as to indicate the subordination of the several parts, and their connection and union; and the universal rule is to place the subordinate words, or phrases, before the principal ones. Yet for the sake of imparting special significance to some words or sentences, the form of this rule is often violated, and particularly in poetry. This is called inverted construction, to distinguish it from the ordinary arrangement, which is designated direct.

Ex. Direct. "The orator had the honor of haranguing Pope Clement the Sixth, and the satisfaction of conversing with Petrarch, a congenial mind; but his aspiring hopes were chilled by disgrace and poverty; and the patriot was reduced to a single garment, and the charity of an hospital!" "The apartments, porticoes, and the courts of the Lateran were spread with innumerable tables for either sex, and every condition; a stream of wine flowed from the nostrils of Constantine's brazen horse; no complaint, except the scarcity of water, could be heard; and the licentiousness of the multitude was curbed by discipline and fear."

Inverted. "At last, after much fatigue, through dull roads, and bad weather, we came, with no smal difficulty, to our journey's end." "Unto the French, the dreadful judgment-day so dreadful will not be, as was his sight." "So shaken as we are, so wan with care, find we a time for frighted peace to pant." "Great is Diana of the Ephesians!" "Fallen, fallen is Babylon, that great city!" "Silver and gold have I none: but such as I have, give I unto thee." "Go I must, whatever may ensue." "Up rose the sun, and up rose Emily."

68. Accentuation.-In order to show the subordination of the less important phrases in sentences, to the principal ones in each of the several combinations treated of above, and to give prominence to the most important elements in words, a particular stress of voice (called accent) is customarily laid upon the radical part of all inflected words, and

upon the principal words or phrases in each of those combinations. Ex. Gólden, disgráceful, grátitude, kíngdom, trúthfulness, wakeful; they reád; the men were astonished, my suspicions were correct; the secrets of the gráve this viperous slander enters; the mighty dead; áll his gólden words are spent; kíng David; here is one Lucianus, néphew to the king; the kingdom of England; the world háteth you; I jóy to meet thee; give the book to mé; I cráve your pardon.

69. Emphasis is distinguished from accent by this; the latter serves to indicate the connection of the words, &c., and to give unity to the meanings of the several parts which enter into the different combinations that make up sentences, &c.; whilst emphasis shows some special meaning which the speaker desires to give to his words, and which they would not ordinarily bear. Ex. "Théy read, wé write; the men were astonished, and the woman fled; my suspicions were correct, but my knówledge was no more than yours; the kingdom of England, not that of Scotland; no, sir, I do not bite my thumb at you, sir; but I bite my thumb, sir; be not afraid, she shall not harm thee; I' scorn you not, it seems that you scorn mé."

70. Punctuation.-The pauses which, in speaking, are used to impart greater accuracy and clearness to our expressions, in writing are represented by characters called stops; and the notes of interrogation and admiration, the parenthesis and the dash, as well as the breaking up of composition into paragraphs, are employed for similar purposes. In poetry they are more used than in prose; and the fewest number possible should always be employed.

The full point, or period, indicates the termination of a passage which is complete both in meaning and in syntax. The colon marks the end of a gram

matical combination, but shows that what follows is required to complete the meaning. The semicolon shows that, both in meaning and in syntax, the expression it follows is incomplete. And the comma is used to distinguish, rather than to divide, the parts of grammatical combinations, so that the connection between them, and their signification when combined, may be more clear. But where the passages are not very long, and no mistake would arise, the comma is used for the semicolon, and even for the colon; and the semicolon is employed instead of the colon. The period is frequently employed, also, where we

should expect only the colon. Ex. "The Roman senators conspired against Julius Cæsar to kill him: that very next morning Artemidorus, Cæsar's friend, delivered him a paper (desiring him to peruse it) wherein the whole plot was discovered: but Cæsar complimented his life away, being so taken up to return the salutations of such people as met him in the way, that he pocketed the paper, among other petitions, as unconcerned therein; and so, going to the Senate-house, he was slain."

"The noble Brutus

Hath told you, Cæsar was ambitious:
If it were so, it was a grievous fault;

And grievously has Cæsar answered it."

71. Parentheses indicate either an explanatory remark, or a thought related to what has been said, which is noted but not pursued; and instead of the common sign, two commas, or two semicolons, or two dashes, are often employed. Ex. "Traveling on the plain (which notwithstanding hath its risings and fallings), I discovered Salisbury steeple many miles off." "I find two (husband and wife), both stealing, and but one of them guilty of felony." "Spill not the morning (the quintessence of the day!) in recreation." "Raleigh had (besides his own merits) two good friends."

In general the dash is used to show that a pause should be made, because the sense is broken off abruptly; or whilst the sense is not interrupted, something unexpected follows; or to call for greater attention to what is about to be said.

To die,-to sleep,

Ex.

No more ;-and, by a sleep, to say we end
The heart-ache, and the thousand natural shocks
That flesh is heir to,-'tis a consummation
Devoutly to be wished."

"O thou invisible spirit of wine, if thou hast no name to be known by, let us call thee-devil!"

"Thou art a villain.'

'You are a senator."

"Some people, handsome by nature, have willfully deformed themselves;-such as wear Bacchus' colors in their faces, arising not from having-but being-bad livers."

"Romeo, the hate I bear thee can afford

No better term than this-Thou art a villain."

Other artifices are employed, such as italics and SMALL CAPITALS, in typography to represent some of the effects of the tones and inflexions of the voice.

72. Some modes of expression, called tropical, or figurative, which are strictly amongst the matters respecting which rhetoric is conversant, should be noticed here; as they serve to account for some of the forms which have been noticed above.

Personification, or prosopopoeia, is the treating of things and subjects without life, even abstractions, as though they were living persons. Ex. "Confusion heard his voice." "I have no spur to prick the sides of my intent, but only vaulting ambition, which o'erleaps itself." "Doth not wisdom cry, and understanding put forth her voice?" Make temperance thy companion, so shall health sit on thy

brow."

66

Ellipsis, or omission, is the suppression of some word, which from the nature of what is spoken of, or from the context, can be readily supplied. Ex. "All in vain [is] my frantic calling, all in vain [are] my falling tears!" "[There is] no way to fly, nor strength to hold out flight!" "The knight came to the tailor's [shop]." "Are you going to the House [of Parliament]?

Pleonasm, or redundancy, is the introduction of some words not actually required, but often exceedingly effective, as a means of giving peculiar emphasis, or expressing a particular feeling. Ex. "The skipping king, he ambled up and down." "They returned back again to the same city from whence they came forth." "The dawn is overcast, the morning lowers, and heavily with clouds brings on the day."

Zeugma, or syllepsis, is the suppression of a verb or a noun, in positions in which it will readily be suggested by another verb or noun, which is expressed; and with which the object, or attributive belonging to the suppressed words, appears to be connected. Ex. "And his mouth was opened immediately, and his tongue [loosed];" "forbidding to marry, and [commanding] to abstain from meats;""my paternal house is desolate, and he himself [my father] destitute and in exile."

These examples illustrate the working of the zeugma, or syllepsis.

PROSODY.

73. Prosody treats of the laws of metrical compositions, regarding accent, quantity, rhythm, rhyme, alliteration, &c., &c.

Accent is the stress laid upon one or more syllables of a word. Monosyllables are capable of accents only when they are uttered with other words. Ex. Fáther, industry, níghtingale, himself, disséver, éxquisitely, whatsoever, volúptuous ;-"there is that in his fáce which leads one to trust him."

Quantity is the time required to pronounce a syllable, and is either long, marked (-), or short, marked (). Seeing, upright, personable, tutelary, peerage, translation, not, nōte, ǎt, āte, tēn, tend, full, cŭll.

Rhythm is the harmonious arrangement of words in lines of various definite lengths; and is one of the chief elements of metre. Ex.

"The poetry of earth is néver dead."

"The willow leaves that dánced in the breeze."
"Fúll mány a glórious morning have I seen
Flátter the mountain-tóps with sóvereign eye."

46

'Seé the day begins to break."

"Lessons sweet of spring returning."

"At the close of the day, when the hámlet is still.” 74. Rhyme is the correspondence of the final sound in a metrical line, with those of one or more other lines preceding or following, immediately or alternately. It is distinguished into assonance and consonance; the former being the correspondence of the vowel sounds alone, the latter of both vowels and consonants. Ex.

"The baron he stroakt his dark-brown cheeke,
And turned his heade asyde;
To whipe away the starting teare
He proudly strave to hyde."

"Have owre, have owre to Aberdour,
It's fiftie fadom deip,

And thair lies guid Sir Patrick Spence,
Wi' the Scots lords at his feit."

"My cloake it was a very good cloake,

It hath been alwayes true to the weare
But now it is not worth a groat;

I have had it four-and-twenty yeere"

Single and double rhymes are also to be distinguished. Ex.

"The Abbot had preached for many years.

With clear articulation,

As ever was heard in the House of Peers
Against Emancipation.

His words had made battalions quake,
Had roused the zeal of martyrs;
Had kept the Court an hour awake,

And the king himself three-quarters."

Alliteration is the commencement of two or more words, in the same or adjoining lines, with the same or closely allied sounds. Ex.

"The parted bosom clings to wonted home,
If aught that's kindred cheer the welcome hearth;
He that is lonely, hither let him roam,
And gaze complacent on congenial earth,
Greece is no lightsome land of social mirth:
But he whom Sadness sootheth may abide,
And scarce regret the region of his birth,
When wandering slow by Delphi's sacred side,
Or gazing o'er the plains, where Greek and Persian died,'

75. Specimens of the principal English meters. In order to distinguish the different kinds of metre, certain names are borrowed from the prosody of Latin and Greek. Thus, an accented syllable preceded by one unaccented is regarded as equivalent to a long syllable following a short one, and is called an Iambic. Ex. "Awáy, or away; rejoice, or rejoice." An accented or long syllable before an accented or short one, is called a Trochee. Ex. "Wretched, or wretched; rísing, or rising." An accented syllable followed by two unaccented is called a Dactyl. Ex. "I'ndustry, or industry; éxquisite, or exquisite." An accented syllable following two unaccented is called an Anapest. Ex. "Lochinvár' or Lochinvär; cavalíer, or căvăliēr.”

The most common metres are varieties of the Iambic, the Trochaic, and the Anapestic; the differences consisting in the number of Iambics, &c., in each line. Further differences arise out of the various kinds of lines, and the manner in which they are grouped so as to form the stanzas. Our examples principally illustrate the composition of single lines.

1. Iambic meter. Four syllables.

"With ravisht ears,

The monarch hears;
Assumes the gód,
Affects the nód."

Eight syllables.

"Bind the sea to slumber stilly, Bind its ódor to the lily,

Bind the aspen ne'er to quiver,

Thén bind Love to last for ever."

The most common use of this meter is in qua trains (or stanzas of four lines) of seven syllables.

There is an almost infinite variety of meters and of stanzas, produced by the intermixture of Iambics and Trochees, and of Iambic with Trochaic metres. 3. Dactylic meter.-The following specimen will suffice for the illustration of the varieties of this meter.

"Hád I a cave on some wild distant shore,

Where the winds hówl to the waves' dashing roár;
There would I weep my woes,

There seek my lóst repose,

Till grief my eyes should close,
Ne'er to wake more."

4. Anapestic meter.-The effect of this meter can be learned from this illustration:

"I have lost for that fafth more than thou canst bestów,

As the God who permits thee to prósper doth knów
In his hand is my heart and my hope; and in thine,
The land and the iffe which for him I resign."

Of the imitations of classical meters little needs to be said, except that they are not adapted to the genius of our language. Many attempts have been made to render them acceptable, some with consid erable success; but the great number of our monosyllables will always prevent them from coming into general use or favor.

76. Beside the kinds of stanza given already, which are principally used in Divine service, some other kinds may be exemplified here.

1. Elegiac.

"Here rests his head upon the lap of earth,
A youth to fortune and to fame unknown;
Fair science smiled not on his humble birth,
And mélancholy márk'd him fór her own."
2. Ottava rima

"'Tis sweet to hear the watchdog's honest bárk
Bay deep-mouth'd welcome as we draw near home,
'Tis sweet to know there is an eye will márk
Our coming, and look brighter when we cóme;
'Tis sweet to be awakened by' the lark,

Or lull'd by falling waters; sweet the hum Of bées, the voice of girls, the song of birds, The lisp of children and their earliest words." 3. Spenserian.

"The Niobé of nations; there she stands,

Childless and crownless, in her voiceless woe
An empty úrn within her wither'd hands,
Whose holy dust was scatter'd long agó;
Her Scipio's tomb contains no áshes nów:
Her véry sépulchrés lie ténantléss

Of their heróic dwellers: dóst thou flów,
Old Tiber through a márble wilderness?
Rise, with thy yellow waves, and mantle hér distréss}"

SYNONYME is a term applied to different words, whose meaning is so nearly the same, that the one may be substituted for the other, without altering the sense of the sentence, in order to avoid the inelegant repetition of the same word:

BANDON, leave, forsake, desert, renounce, relinquish,
quit, forego, let go, waive.
Abandoned, wicked, reprobate, dissolute, profligate,
flagitious, corrupt, depraved, vicious.
Abandonment, leaving, desertion, dereliction, renun-
ciation, defection.

Abasement, degradation, fall, degeneracy, humilia-
tion, abjection, debasement, servility.

Abash, bewilder, disconcert, discompose, confound, confuse, shame.

Abbreviate, shorten, abridge, condense, contract, curtail, reduce.

Abdicate, give up, resign, renounce, abandon, forsake, relinquish, quit, forego.

Abet, help, encourage, instigate, incite, stimulate, aid, assist.

Abettor, assistant, accessory, accomplice, promoter, instigator, particeps criminis, coadjutor, associate, companion, coöperator. Abhor, dislike intensely, view with horror, hate, detest, abominate, loathe, nauseate.

Ability, capability, talent, faculty, capacity, qualification, aptitude, aptness, expertness, skill, efficiency, accomplishment, attainment. Abject, grovelling, low, mean, base, ignoble, worthless, despicable, vile, servile, contemptible.

Abjure, recant, forswear, disclaim, recall, revoke, retract, renounce. Able, strong, powerful, muscular, stalwart, vigorous, athletic, robust, brawny, skillful, adroit, competent, efficient, capable, clever, selfqualified, telling, fitted.

Abode, residence, habitation, dwelling, domicile, home, quarters, lodging.

Abolish, quash, destroy, revoke, abrogate, annul, cancel, annihilate, extinguish, vitiate, invalidate, nullify.

Abominable, hateful, detestable, odious, vile, execrable.
Abortive, fruitless, ineffectual, idle, inoperative, vain, futile.
About, concerning, regarding, relative to, with regard to, as to, respect-
ing, with respect to, referring to, around, nearly, approximately.
Abscond, run off, steal away, decamp, bolt.

Absent, a., inattentive, abstracted, not attending to, listless, dreamy.
Absolute, entire, complete, unconditional. unqualified, unrestricted,
despotic, arbitrary, tyrannous, imperative, authoritative, imperious.
Absolve, set free, loose, clear, acquit, liberate, release, forgive.
Absorb, engross, swallow up, engulf, imbibe, consume, merge, fuse.
Absurd, silly, foolish, preposterous, ridiculous, irrational, unreasona-
ble, nonsensical, inconsistent.

Abuse, v., asperse, revile, vilify, reproach, calumniate, defame, slander, scandalize, malign, traduce, disparage, depreciate, ill-use.

Abuse, m., scurrility, ribaldry, contumely, obloquy, opprobrium, foul invective, vituperation.

Accede, assent to, consent, acquiesce, comply with, agree, coincide, concur, approve.

Accelerate, hasten, hurry, expedite, forward, quicken, despatch.
Accept, receive, take, admit.

Acceptable, agreeable, pleasing, pleasurable, gratifying, welcome.
Accident, casualty, incident, contingency, adventure, chance.
Acciamation, applause, plaudit, exultation, joy, shouting, cheering,
triumph, jubilation.

Accommodate, adapt, adjust, fit, suit, serve, supply, furnish.

Accomplice, confederate, accessory, abettor, coadjutor, assistant, ally, associate, particeps criminis.

Accomplish, do, effect, finish, execute, achieve, complete, perfect, con

summate.

Accomplishment, attainment, qualification, acquirement.
Accord, grant, allow, admit, concede.

Accost, salute, address, speak to, stop, greet.

Account, v., assign, adduce, reckon, compute, calculate, estimate. Account, ., narrative, description, narration, relation, detail, recital, moneys, reckoning, bill, charge.

Accountable, punishable, answerable, amenable, responsible, liable.
Accredited, authorized, commissioned, empowered, intrusted.
Accumulate, bring together, amass, collect, gather.
Accumulation, collection, store, mass, congeries, concentration.
Accurate, correct, exact, precise, nice, truthful.

Achieve, do, accomplish, effect, fulfill, execute, gain, win.

Achievement, feat, exploit, accomplishment, attainment, perform.

ance, acquirement, gain.

Acknowledge, admit, confess, own, avow, grant, recognize, allow, concede.

Acquaint, inform, enlighten, apprise, make aware, make known, notify, communicate.

Acquaintance, familiarity, intimacy, cognizance, fellowship, companionship, knowledge.

Acquiesce, agree, accede, assent, comply, consent, give way, coincide with.

Acquit, pardon, forgive, discharge, set free, clear, absolve.
Act, do, operate, make, perform, play, enact.

Action, deed, achievement, feat, exploit, accomplishment, battle, en gagement, agency, instrumentality.

Active, lively, sprightly, alert, agile, nimble, brisk, quick, supple,
prompt, vigilant, laborious, industrious.
Actual, real, positive, genuine, certain.

Acute, shrewd, intelligent, penetrating, piercing, keen.
Adapt, accommodate, suit, fit, conform.

Addicted, devoted, wedded, attached, given up to, dedicated.
Addition, increase, accession, augmentation, reinforcement.
Address, tact, skill, ability, dexterity, deportment, demeanor.
Adhesion, adherence, attachment, fidelity, devotion.

Adjacent, near to, adjoining, contiguous, conterminous, bordering, neighboring.

Adjourn, defer, prorogue, postpone, delay.

Adjunct, appendage, appurtenance, appendency, dependency.

Adjust, set right, fit, accommodate, adapt, arrange, settle, regulate, on ganize.

Admirable, striking, surprising, wonderful, astonishing.