32. The demonstrative pronouns are this and that, with the plurals these and those; such, the same, yon and yonder, here, there, hence, thence, then, &c., most of which are adverbs. Ex. "This same shall comfort us," "after this or that determinate manner," "it makes a greater show in these months than in those," "such are the cold Riphean race, and such the savage Scythian," "darkness there might well seem twilight here," "now shaves with level wing the deep, then soars," ""useless and thence ridiculous," "yon flowering arbors, yonder alleys green." The, commonly called the definite article, is properly a demonstrative pronoun. Pronouns used in questions, called interrogative, and those used in subjective and adjective accessory sentences, called relative, are who (in the objective whom, and the possessive whose, in both numbers), which (occasionally with a possessive case, whose) what, where, whither, whence, when, how; some of them being adverbs. Ex. Who art thou? Which is it? What do you mean? "Whose dog are you?" "Whom dost thou serve?" Whence come you? 'Whither goest thou?" "How can these things be?" "The son of Duncan, from whom the tyrant holds the due of birth, lives in the English court." "The handsel or earnest of that which is to come." See what natures accompany the several colors." "In Lydia born, where plenteous harvests the fat fields adorn." "Grateful t'acknowledge whence his good descends." "I strayed I knew not whither." Note, that the relative pronoun what is in signification equivalent to the, that, or those which. 33. Whoever, whosoever (and whomsoever, whosesoever) whichever, whichsoever, whatever, whatsoever, wherever, whencesoever, however, herein, therein, therefore, wherefore, whereof, whereas, &c., are compounded or contracted pronouns and pronominal phrases. Ex. "I will follow thee whithersoever thou goest." "I think myself beholden, whoever shows me my mistakes." "Whomsoever else they visit, with the diligent only do they stay." "In whatsoever shape he lurk, I'll know." "Thy very stones prate of my whereabout." "You do take the means whereby I live." "Herein is a wonderful thing." "Howbeit, this wisdom saved them not." In addition to these various classes of pronouns, there are some which are called indefinite, such as one, aught, naught, (sometimes spelt ought, nought), each, every, either, neither, any, other (which has a plural when used as a noun, but not when used at tributively), they (when used to signify "people in general"), &c. Ex. "One may be little the wiser for reading," "for aught that I can understand,”“ it cometh to naught," "are there any with you?" "the virtue and force of every of these three is shrewdly allayed," "they say that he has died immensely rich." 34. Adverbs.-These words do not admit of inflexion, and of them some are found only in the adverbial form, others are used as prepositions or conjunctions also; some are pronouns or adjectives; and many are derived from adjectives and even from substantives. They are employed to express the relations of place-as here, there, where, hither, thither, whither, hence, thence, whence, above, below, before, behind, in, out, off, on, near, afar, backwards, forwards, aside, &c.,—of time, as, then, when, now, after, before, still, soon, already, lately, daily, hitherto, &c.,-of manner, as how, thus, so, as, otherwise, well, fluently, kindly, blindly, lovingly, bravely, brightly, &c.,-of mood, as yes, no, not, if, perhaps, probably, possibly, likely, really, &c., -of degree or intensity, as frequently, seldom, often, again, very, quite, even, nearly, only, too, almost, much, rather, once, twice, thrice, &c.,—of causality, as wherefore, therefore, however, nevertheless, &c. Some of those of manner, degree, and mood, admit of degrees of comparison, which they form after the manner of adjectives. Ex. Soon, sooner, soonest, bravely, more bravely, most bravely. 35. Prepositions.-These also are uninflected words, and besides the prepositions, properly socalled, nouns, adjectives, verbs, participles, and adverbs, and even combinations of words, are employed as prepositions. Almost all the real prepositions admit of being used to express every variety of relation between the predicate and its objects, and between a subject and its attributes; but originally they all expressed the relation of place alone. The prepositions, properly so called, and other words used for prepositions, are such as above, about, across, after, against, along, among, at, before, behind, beside, between, beyond, by, concerning, down, during, from, in, into, of, of, on, over, save, since, through, till, to, towards, up, upon, with, &c. The following are some of the combinations of words used as prepositions :-because of, by means of, on account of, in behalf of, instead of, according to, ad jacent to, contrary to, with respect to, &c. Verbs frequently have prepositions as affixes, to modify their signification; and sometimes prepositions are used as adverbial objects in our language, which in other tongues are compounded with the verb. Ex. He undertook that business willingly; they have overcome their enemies; what would I not undergo for you? "they went over to the enemy;" "the poet passes it over as hastily as he can;" "to set forth great things by small;" "I shall set out for London to-morrow." 36. Conjunctions, like adverbs and prepositions, are indeclinable words. Some words are used only as conjunctions, and are called conjunctions proper; others are really pronouns, adverbs, &c. Coördinative conjunctions are simply copulative, as, and, also, besides, morcover, too, not only-but also, both-and, as well as, neither-nor, then, &c.; adversative, as, else, either—or, not—but, on the contrary, still, nevertheless, &c.; or causative, as, therefore, hence, so, consequently, for, accordingly. Subordinative conjunctions connect adverbial and subjective accessory sentences with their principal sentences; and are such as, that, but that, but, whether, if, since, although, unless, so, when, while, whilst, where, whence, &c. 37. Amongst these indeclinable classes of words. may be found many very interesting examples of ancient forms and inflexions of the English language, some of which have been lost in all but these instances, and in these the original signification is no longer preserved. Ex. Possessive cases, else, unawares, needs; dative cases, seldom, whilom; neuter objective cases, little, less, well, nigh, athwart; comparative degrees, after, yonder, over, ere; superlative degrees, erst, next, almost. Note, that indeclinable words, which are used only as adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections, are frequently called particles-and also, that the direct affirmative, yes, and the direct negative, are by some grammarians placed in a distinct. ass, as not being properly adverbs. The great cause of the varied appearances or pro1nciations of words originally the same in the speech o several races, is loss of care in utterance. The reasons for preferring one form to another are not always exactly definable, but as a rule the linguistic laws of phonetic alteration conform to the physical laws of articulation. Loss of care in utterance is ever to be avoided. SYNTAXIS 38. For the purpose of rendering this compendium of English Grammar more serviceable in such a study as that recommended in the first part, the examples in illustration of the Syntax are taken from casually opened pages of the English Bible, Shakespeare, the quotations in Dr. Johnson's English Dictionary, and one or two other books. In the same manner, the student should select examples by way of exercise, and to demonstrate to himself that he understands the grammatical principles exhibited here. Words are combined in the formation of sentences in three ways; as subjects and predicates, as attributives to subjects, and as objects to predicates. And sentences are combined coördinately, or subordinately; subordinate or accessory sentences occupying the positions of nouns, adjectives, or adverbs, in the principal sentences of which they form part. 39. Subject and Predicate.-In every sentence of perfectly expressed thought, these two elements are absolutely requisite-some person or thing spoken of, or a subject; and something asserted respecting it, or a predicate. If either subject or predicate be wanting, the expression in itself is unintelligible. For subjects, nouns (which stand for persons or things) or pronouns (used in the place of nouns, and always in the nominative case), adjectives, participles or infinitive moods (representing qualities, actions, &c.), single words or letters (in which the thing and the name are identical), or subjective accessory sentences, may be used. Ex. "All tongues speak of him;" "action is eloquence;" "my praises made the first a soldier;" "you are a traitor;" "here he comes;" "they say, she 's mad; " "the dead shall rise and live again;" "the wise shall inherit glory;" "in him sparing would show a worse sin than its doctrine;” “to err is human, to forgive, divine;" "who is now used in relation to persons, and which to things;" "A has, in the English language, three different sounds;' "that you have wronged me, doth appear in this;" "who steals my purse, steals trash;" "for a holy person to be humble is as hard as for a prince to submit himself to tutors." 99.66 The strictly impersonal verbs have no subject expressed. Ex. "Methinks already I your tears survey," "methought I saw the grave where Laura lay." Actions or conditions which are not assignable to any subject, have the pronoun it, as a formal subject. Ex. "It thunders, it lightens,' "it snows at the top of them, oftener than it rains," "it was freezing," "it is very cold," "it is hot to-day," "it seems." And similarly, for the sake of emphasis or animation, it and there are used formally as subjects, the real subjects being placed after their predicates. Ex. "It is excellent to have a giant's strength, but it is tyrannous to use it as a giant," "it is good to be here," "it is I," "it was you who did this," "it beboved him to suffer," "it is said that parliament is dissolved," "it repented the Lord that he had made man, it doth not yet appear what we shall be," "there be many that say," there was in a city a judge," "once upon a time there lived a man," there arose a mighty famine in that land," "there were that thought it a part of Christian charity to instruct them." 79 66 99 66 40. The essential characteristic of the predicate being assertion, a verb is indispensable in this part of a sentence. But besides verbs of all kinds, the verb to be, with nouns or pronouns (and that not only in the nominative case, but in the possessive also, and in the objective with a preposition), adjectives, participles, the infinitive mood, adverbs (and adverbs with prepositions), single words or letters, and accessory sentences, may be used as predicates. In the latter cases, the form of the verb to be, which is employed, is called the copula, or link, which unites the predicate to the subject. Ex. "He ran this way, and leaped this orchard wall," "he hath hid himself among those trees," "I'll believe thee," "Juliet is the sun," "I am a villain," "you'll be the bear," "her mother is the lady of the house," "ye are Christ's, and Christ is God's," "oh, he is even in my mistress' case, just in her case," "the haughty prelate, with many more confederates are in arms," of noble race was Shenkin,' they were to the number of three hundred horse," "they shall be mine," " you shall be ours," ," "he is not of us," "the sky is red," "you are meek," "you are excused," "they are running this way,' ," "you are not to be taught," "the holy treasure was to be reserved," " the woman will be out," "ye are 99.66 they seem." Nevertheless, in poetry and oratory, when peculiar emphasis or effect is desired, the copula is omitted, and the other predicative word placed before the subject. Ex. "Vain, all in vain, the weary search;" "sweet the moments, rich in blessing. The connection between the predicate and the subject in a sentence is shown by the predicate being in the same number as the subject. Ex. He loves, they love, the tree falls, trees grow, I am afraid, we are satisfied. Two or more singular subjects connected by the conjunction "and" (which, however, is often omitted), so as to form either a compound or a single subject, have their predicate in the plural. Ex. "Bacon and Shakespeare are the greatest geniuses that England has produced;""now abide faith, hope, charity;" one and one are two." And similarly, collective nouns have their predicates in the singular when they are thought of in the aggregate. but the plural when their component parts are most regarded. Ex. "Parliament is sitting," "a cluster of mob were making themselves merry with their betters," "he people are the city," "my people doth not consider." But when the predicate is a singular noun, the copula is often singular. Ex. "Bread and cheese is fit diet for a prince." And when the conjunction or or nor is used, unless the last subject be plural, the predicate is singular. Ex. "Either you or your brother has deceived me," neither shall the sun light on them, "either he or they have carried her nor any heat," off." 41. When the speaker makes the assertion respecting himself, the subject is a personal pronoun of the first person, and the verb is also in the first person; when the assertion is addressed to him respecting whom it is made, the personal pronoun of the second person, and the form of the verb to correspond with it, are employed; and when it relates to any other person or thing, the third person of the verb (with the pronoun to correspond, if requisite), is used. Ex. "I, that speak unto thee, am he," "I know in whom I have believed," "we speak that we do know,” “thou art the man,” "thou knewest that I was an austere man,' ," "ye believe not, because ye are not of my sheep." "Hamlet, thou hast thy father much offended.--Mother, you have my father much offended." "He planteth an ash, and the rain from beneath," "the preterit of creep is crept," "the doth nourish it,' he drinketh no water, and is faint,' ending of the genitive case is s," "this is what I the great duke came to the bar,' gentlemen, the said,” “thou art whom I fear,” men should be what | penance lies on you," penance lies on you," "heavenly blessings follow such 99 66 99.66 66 99 68 09 66 creatures, ," "the hearts of princes kiss obedience, so much they love it." In commands, the subject is | very commonly omitted. Ex. “Observe, observe, he is moody," "believe it, this is true," "pray hear me." The subject is also very frequently omitted in animated discourse, before the verbs pray, please, &c., when used in accessory sentences. Ex. "Pray hear me," "give it me, please." 42. When the assertion is general, or refers to the time at which it is made generally, the present indefinite sense is used. Ex. "Man wants but little here below." "I am the most unhappy woman living." "My lords, you speak your pleasures. What he deserves of you and me, I know; what we can do to him (though now the time gives way to us) I much fear." When it refers to the actual point of time at which the assertion is made, the present imperfect is used. Ex. "The duke is coming," "his grace is entering," "from all parts they are coming," "England is not wanting in a learned nobility.' And when it is made respecting an action regarded at the time as completed, the present perfect is employed. Ex. "I have heard one of the greatest geniuses this age has produced," "the gods have placed labor before interest," "this observation we have made on man." The present perfect sometimes appears with a different auxiliary. Ex. "I am come, they are gone." "Cardinal Campeius is stolen away to Rome." The indefinite tense is frequently used instead of the imperfect. Ex. He bites his lip, and starts, stops on a sudden, looks upon the ground." And the present perfect is sometimes employed to indicate past time, or in a sense equivalent to that of the past indefinite tense. Ex. "We have done that which it was our duty to do," we have heard with our ears, and our fathers have declared unto us the noble works thou didst in their days." 99.66 In animated historical narrative, and in narrative poetry, the present indefinite is often employed. Ex. "The boy starts to his feet, and his keen eye looks along the ready rifle .... Lo! a deer from Dalness, hound-driven, or sullenly astray, slowing, bearing his antlers up the glen, then stopping for a moment to snuff the air, then away-away! The rifle-shot rings dully from the scarce echoing snowcliff, and the animal leaps aloft struck by a certain but not sudden death-wound." "Her lover sinks-she sheds no ill-timed tears: Her fellows flee-she checks their base career; "My General descends to the outer staircase, and harangues; once more in vain... Lafayette mounts the white charger; and again harangues, and reharangues, ...so lasts it, hour after hour, for the space of half a day." 43. In like manner, actions, &c., are referred to the past generally, or as proceeding and incomplete, or as completed, by the use of the past indefinite, imperfect, and perfect tenses. Ex. "My father loved you, he said he did," "I thrice presented him a kingly crown,' kingly crown," "you wronged yourself; "-"they of Bethshemesh were reaping," "Israel were fighting with the Philistines," "they were eating, and drinking, and dancing;"-" when Boaz had eaten and drunk, he went to lie down," "Elihu had waited till Job had spoken." The emphatic form is commonly used interchangeably with the indefinite. Ex. "Thus did my master bid me kneel, and thus he bade me say." The indefinite is often employed definitely when any particular past time is indicated in the sentence. Ex. "I saw him yesterday." And in the same way actions, &c., in time become discriminated by the employment of the future indefinite, imperfect, and perfect tenses. Ex. “A weighty secret will work a hole through them,” “he will not stoop till he falls," "I shall never forget; "— "thy people shall be willing in the day of thy power," "they will be still praising thee;"-" we shall have completed our task before you commence yours," "then cometh the end, when he shall have delivered up the kingdom to God." Instead of the future, the indefinite present is often used. Ex. I leave England to-morrow, we sail next week. Other forms for expressing future time are mentioned above. Ex. We are going to spend some time on the conti""I was about to write." nent,' 44. When simple assertion, or denial, is intended, the predicate is always in the indicative mood. Ex. "I am glad to see your lordship abroad,” 66 the mouse gnawed the threads to pieces, and set the lion at liberty," "he goeth in company with the workers of iniquity, and walketh with wicked men," "you did wish that I would wake her then,” “she may go to bed when she list; all is as she will," thou must run to him," "flatter him it may, I confess." In principal sentences, when a wish is to be expressed, or a concession to be made for the sake of argument, the subjunctive mood is used. Ex. "Now, all my joy trace the conjunction!" "the Lord forbid!" the Lord increase this business!" "be it so, my argument remains unshaken." Commands are conveyed by means of the imperative mood. Ex. "Know thyself," "follow thou me," "cease to do evil, learn to do well," "rejoice, you men of Angiers, ring your bells." The auxiliary let is employed for the first and third persons. Ex. "Acknowledge then the king, and let me in," "let none of them escape," "rise, let us go," "let the soldiers seise him," "let Euclid rest, and Archimedes pause," "let him be known among the heathens." 45. The distinction between the use of the active and the passive forms of verbs has been pointed out and illustrated above (p. 11); and from that it will appear that whatever has been said here respecting predicates applies as much to the latter as to the former, with this exception-there being no (or but few) imperfect tenses in the passive, the indefinite tenses are in all cases (except the few referred to) used to express actions still in progress, or incomplete. Ex. "The colors are changed by viewing them at different obliquities," "I am determined to prove a villain," "you shall be new christened in the town,' "" to that sweet region was our voyage bent," "Hector was dragged about the walls of Troy," "the Irish horseboys should be cut off," "after all that can be said against it, this remains true," "it may be occasioned thus," "it shall be reported to the king," "the Presbyterian sect was established in all its forms," "it was said, that the elder should serve the younger." 46. In questions the same grammatical forms are employed as in assertions; but the order of the words is generally inverted, and when compound tenses are used (as they most frequently are), the subject follows the auxiliary, whilst the verb itself occupies its usual place. Interrogative pronouns are put at the beginning of questions. Ex. "Where is he?' “Shall I live in hope?" "What, do you tremble, are you all afraid," "Saw you the king to-day?" "When have I injured thee?" "Why look you so pale?" "Who hath believed our report?" "To whom will ye liken God?" "Lucentio is your name ?" 'What, you mean my face?" "You saw this and opposed it not?" The grammatical construction of negative sentences differs not at all from that of affirmative ones, such as have been chiefly selected for examples; the relation of the negative words no, not, &c., being either that of the attributive to its subject, or of the object of manner to its predicate, as may be seen below. 47. Subject and Attributive. In order to describe the subjects respecting which assertions are made in sentences, more accurately than their mere names are sufficient to do; and to define them, so that the assertions may not become ambiguous by reason of the vagueness of the subjects they relate to, words, phrases, and accessory sentences are employed, which are called attributives. The commonest attributives are adjectives; with which may be included participles (which are the adjective forms of verbs), numerals, some kinds of pronouns, nouns used as adjectives, and a few adverbs, which are also occasionally used attributively. The only sign of the relation between these attributives and their subjects is their position, which is immediately before the words they refer to, except in cases where peculiar emphasis or animation is aimed at, when they immediately follow their subjects, Ex. "The wierd sisters,' my dread exploits," "from this moment," "my dearest coz," "my pretty cousin,” “to offer up a weak, poor, innocent lamb," "O nation miserable!" "a most miraculous work in this good king," "thy royal father was a more sainted king," "each several crime," "many ways," "the healing benediction," "all my pretty chickens," "an accustomed action," curses, not loud, but deep," "those linen cheeks of thine are counsellors to fear," "a rooted sorrow," "the written troubles of the brain,” what wood is this," 'within this three mile," "a moving grove," "lead our first battle, "hateful to mine ear," "thou shalt have none assurance of thy life," "there was no day like that before," "it is no good report that I hear," "in that very day his thoughts perish," to poor we thine enmity's most capital," "a hundred altars in her temples smoke, a thousand bleeding hearts her power invoke, sone men with swords may reap the field," "see where the victor victim bleeds," "his knowledge of good lost," "man's first disobedience," "these are the martyr spirits of mankind," "which way went he?" "what man is he?" "on the hither side," "^1 flowery arbors, yonder alleys green," "in russet got and honest kersey hose," a hundred upon poor four us! an everlasting now." 99.66 99.66 99 66 In some cases where a noun is compounded with |