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CHAPTER II.

THE AGE OF SETTLEMENT.

The great pioneers in America-the Spanish-were unceasing in their activities during the first two centuries after the discovery of the new world. For the first century they were almost alone here; during the second century they were still foremost. The Portuguese made some settlements in South America, but the Spanish made more, and still more numerous were their settlements in Mexico. In what is now the United States, fewer towns were founded, although the first permanent colony planted here was the one that grew up around the fort at St. Augustine—founded in 1565. Through New Mexico, Arizona, Texas and California their tremendous strength was felt and the later development of the southern Pacific slope was deeply affected by the Spanish. In 1769 the Franciscans landed near the present site of San Diego and began their tireless efforts to civilize the Indians. The final suppression of their work resulted disastrously indeed.

"That later times have reversed the situation; that Spain (largely because she was drained of her best blood by a conquest so enormous that no nation even now could give the men or the money to keep the enterprise abreast with the world's progress) has never regained her old strength, and is now a drone beside the young giant of nations that has grown, since her day, in the empire she opened-has nothing to do with the obligation of American history to give her justice for the past. Had there been no Spain four hundred years ago, there would be no United States today. It is a most fascinating story to every genuine American,-for every one worthy of the name admires heroism and loves fair-play everywhere, and is first of all interested in the truth about his own country." 1

Spain's enormous profits from the mines of Peru soor aroused the lethargy of England. Adventurous spirits begar

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to intercept Spanish galleons on the seas, and, finding that their sovereign made slight inquiry as to the means by which they gained their wealth, they laid in wait for the stately ships that were returning with much treasure. The buccaneering of Hawkins, Drake and men of similar spirit, did much to stimulate a feeling of hostility between the two countries. Spain stood for a united Church; the Holy See found Spanish sovereigns among the staunchest supporters of Catholicism. England had shaken herself free from Rome, and for religious causes Spain wanted to strike a blow at the sturdy island. However, rivalry in trade has always been as potent a factor as religion in provoking a war-today it is the stronger of the two, but even in former ages its force was not to be despised. Spain laid claim to all the new world with the exception of certain districts in Brazil, settled by Portugal. Between England and Spain it was to be war to the death, and the resources of the latter were bountifully expended in preparing the Spanish Armada which was to strike at the heart of the rival country.

For many years Spain had been draining her country of its fighting strength in prosecuting wars on the continent. Recently her men of vigor had been plunging into the unknown world, and while the fact was not wholly realized by the king, Spain was ill prepared to enter upon a terrible struggle with sturdy England. When the ministers, filled with alarm for England's safety, called for soldiers, practically the whole island responded-Catholic and Protestant alike-ready to fight for native land.

Utterly defeated on the seas, both countries understood the meaning of Spain's defeat and England's victory. Henceforth Spain must hold what she could. Having attempted too much, she was doomed to lose everything. Confident of their strength, the English were now free to plant their colonies at will.

The attempts made by the English to establish colonies in Newfoundland and on the island of Roanoke failed. The early English settlements were managed by companies of merchants in London, who were looking for prompt returns for investments and did not comprehend the conditions prevailing in a remote wilderness. Those who responded to the call for

men to go out into a new country were, as a rule, those who had failed at home. Successful business men were not likely to entertain the idea of beginning in a strange land. Men who had recently served in continental wars and were now without employment; men who found themselves out of work because land in England was being thrown into large holdings for sheep pastures; sons of nobles who wished to seek their fortunes but who knew nothing of actual work-such were the men who responded to the opportunity given by companies promoting colonies in America.

In 1907 there was held in Jamestown, Virginia, an exposition commemorating the three hundredth anniversary of the founding of that little town. In 1607, on the banks of the James river, the first permanent English settlement was made in America. Men of all sorts and conditions came hither, but one tendency characterized nearly all: a strong aversion to work. Even the ones who were willing did not know how to proceed, and lack of food, bad water, fevers and dissensions worked them woe. Had it not been for Captain John Smith the whole colony might have been destroyed. As it was, in 1610 the survivors had already set sail for England when they met Lord Delaware bringing food and other necessities, and were persuaded to turn back to the homes they had just abandoned.

In time prosperity came to Virginia. There were many rivers affording water and fertile soil. Along these streams great fields of tobacco soon were planted. This commodity found a ready sale in England, and the Virginian planters became the wealthy men of the eastern sea-board. The very conditions of life explain the political organization that sprang up among them almost unnoticed. Living far apart, rivers rather than roads afforded them means of communication. Ships came up to the planter's private wharf, loaded on his tobacco for shipment to England, and gave him in exchange such articles, commodities and products as he could not procure at home. A visit between planters involved quite a journey. As a natural result, towns were few, roads poor, and the political unit became, not the township, as in New England, but the county.

In 1619 three events significant for the future transpired

in Virginia: a goodly number of maidens were brought out to become the wives of the colonists and make possible the establishment of permanent homes; the first colored slaves were brought to Jamestown and sold to the planters; and the first legislative assembly convened in the little Jamestown church to make laws for the community. To be sure, the charter of Virginia was afterwards withdrawn and the colony became a royal province, but the spirit of representation, justice and freedom had been fostered and was destined to assert itself in the future.

In 1620 the Mayflower made its memorable voyage, bringing to the cold, inhospitable shores of New England that little company of brave men and women who came hither for the purpose of worshipping as they thought right. Even little children in America today know the story of their wanderings; how, persecuted in England, they found a place of refuge in Holland, but soon realized that in course of time their nationality would there be lost. Then with a mighty effort and a staunch courage they resolutely turned their faces toward the new world, hoping to be able there to remain Englishmen and enjoy freedom of religious thought and service. Among them the faults of idleness and indolence were not found, but they landed in the month of December and were ill prepared for the intense cold, miserable shelter and scanty food. Small wonder that more than half died before spring. Their difficulties with the Indians, their trials and dangers need no recital here. Like other stories of Colony Days, they are early implanted in the minds of all American citizens.

There was no single commodity to be grown here which would bring prosperity to New England. The soil of this section had been made poor and stony by great glaciers which spread over the whole region twice, at least, in ages long passed away. The deposits that were brought down by these rivers of ice filled up the old river beds and when the ice at length subsided, new streams set to work to cut down their channels. Young rivers are generally characterized by waterfalls, and these were especially plentiful in New England. As a result of its topography, then, this region became, not a farming section, but a manufacturing district. Towns sprang up everywhere. Roads led from one to another. Each

locality possessed its own peculiar needs. Consequently the township, and not the county, became the political unit of New England.

Conditions in England accounted for the large migration westward during the latter part of the seventeenth century. Religious persecution affected in turn Catholics, Puritans, Dissenters and Quakers. Maryland was settled as a refuge for Catholics, and in 1649 the first act of religious toleration ever enacted in America was passed in this colony. William Penn founded Philadelphia-City of Brotherly Love-as a home for Quakers. Rhode Island was settled by people who were driven out of Puritan Massachusetts because they would not conform to the ideas of that sect. In the latter part of the century, political reasons were as potent as those pertaining to religion. The Stuarts were trying to give the theory of the Divine Right of kings a material reality in England. Many independent spirits found submission intolerable and migrated to other lands. Again, during the Commonwealth, the royalists did not feel safe at home, and they in turn looked across the ocean and felt that it was best to try their fortunes in the western land.

While the English were swarming to the Atlantic seaboard, other nations were not idle. As early as 1604 the French tried to plant colonies in Nova Scotia and Port Royal, but neither was successful. However, forts were established at Montreal and Quebec, and Jesuit Fathers, in company with French traders and explorers, journeyed all through the St. Lawrence basin, around the Great Lakes and down the Mississippi, founding a station near the mouth of the great river— New Orleans. From Quebec to the Gulf of Mexico they thus blocked out a highway through the continent. Conditions within France prevented a firm and aggressive policy in the new world at a time when this alone could have won lasting possessions.

The Dutch, who had become to a considerable extent the carriers for Europe on the high seas, looked eagerly toward the new world. In 1909 the Hudson-Fulton celebration in New York commemorated the three hundredth anniversary since Henry Hudson had sailed up the Hudson River in his vessel, the Half-Moon, in search for a passage to China. The

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