with distrust. The feeling, however, has long passed away, and at present the Society maintains seven colleges, one in the East, four in the Middle West, and two on the Pacific Coast. Haverford, Pennsylvania, though not officially connected with the Society, is owned and controlled by members. All the institutions, elementary, secondary, and higher, rank well in the classes to which they belong. Their interests are fostered by the General Board of Education of the Five Years' Meeting.

As is well known, Friends have always been in the van in the cause of temperance, and have been active in the antisaloon and prohibition movements.

The harmonious co-operation of the different groups in the European relief work has frequently suggested the question whether it will not bring about a closer union. It may be said in reply that, so far as can be seen, it is very unlikely, for too great differences in doctrine still exist to make a church union desirable. But it has taught many that kindly feeling and much co-operation are quite possible even when there is great difference of opinion on important matters.

Passing for a moment to the Hicksite and Conservative groups, it may be said of the former that the members have been active in philanthropic and social work. Great attention has been paid to education. Their excellent schools and Swarthmore College, Pennsylvania, a co-educational institution, have received hearty support. By means of biennial conferences, representing the whole group, the membership has been kept in touch with all movements of interest to the body and enabled to share more fully in whatever efforts may be made. There has been a constant tendency to greater freedom in doctrine and practice. Within the past few years recording of ministers and appointment of elders have practically ceased, and the tendency is toward the greatest possible democracy in the church organization. Notwithstanding these and other efforts and the institution of an active Young Friends'

Movement the decrease in membership has not yet been arrested.1

The Conservatives have kept the even tenor of their way repeating very nearly the quietism of the eighteenth century, and showing little missionary interest. Their membership, as nearly as can be ascertained, also shows a decline. Both groups have joined heartily in the relief and reconstruction work, and have representation on the executive committee of the American Friends' Service Committee.

A conference representing all, the world over, who call themselves Friends, was held in London, England, in August, 1920. The object of this gathering was to discuss matters of common interest, especially means for furthering the cause of peace, international, national, social, and economic, and to consider what part the Friends should take in the effort. Notwithstanding the diverse elements, and different nationalities represented, the conference was harmonious. Several addresses were issued and the general effect has been to bring all Friends into closer fellowship.

Such is a brief review of the history of Quakerism. What can be said of its present condition and tendencies? Let us return to the consideration of the Orthodox body with which we are especially concerned. Problems of peculiar difficulty ace a small denomination spread over a wide expanse of country. Differences of environment, education, outlook, far more than in a large denomination, have an influence antagonistic to a close union. It is emphatically so with the Friends. That they have held together as closely as they have, is more remarkable than that there should be, here and there, disintegrating influences at work. Some members in the Middle West and more on the Pacific Coast view with concern the greater liberality in matters of doctrine, and the

This may be partly due to the concentration of the membership, as more than half belongs to Philadelphia Yearly Meeting (Hicksite), and about three-fourths to Philadelphia and Baltimore Yearly Meetings (Hicksite).

willingness to join in relief and other work with those they do not consider evangelical. They also lay great stress on written statements of religious doctrine, and fail to see that Friends in placing emphasis on life rather than on creed are simply maintaining their historic attitude, and taking their place alongside of those increasing numbers in other denominations who, while holding fast the essentials of Christian faith, believe that a life of Christian service is more important than subscription to a formal creed or a written statement of faith. Such dissident members are few in comparison with the membership at large and are scarcely likely to increase greatly in number. It is, however, recognized that there is a serious danger that, in devoting thought and effort to external service, the spiritual may not receive that close attention which is essential to all work professed to be carried out on a Christian basis. It is a fundamental of the Quaker faith that nothing can take the place of a personal spiritual experience.

In common with other denominations, the problem of the ministry is a serious one. That there is need for an intelligent, educated service is unquestionable; zeal, earnest exhortation, or both combined are not sufficient. How can the need be met without conflicting with the historic position of the body as to the necessity of a divine call, sometimes immediate, and "the priesthood of all believers"? Is it practicable, amid the legitimate demands of modern life, for members to devote the necessary time to ministerial and pastoral work? Can any considerable number of men and women of ability be expected to devote their lives or a great part of them to a work in which but a meager income for years and small prospect for the future is all that can be looked for? Various efforts have been made to meet certain phases of the question. Some Friends, a number of years ago, instituted a Bible Training School for ministers and Christian workers; but it cannot be said that the results have been satisfactory to the body at large, for the tendency has been toward the creation of a ministerial

A School for

class, inelastic methods, and a narrow outlook. Social and Religious Education, much less formal, intended rather for Christian workers, has also been in operation for a few years. Another method has been to introduce into the college curriculum, for those who feel called to the ministry or Christian work, courses on the Bible, church history, sociology, psychology, and practical ways of church service. Still more recently, a well-endowed graduate school has been opened, offering instruction in "biblical literature, philosophy, sociology, history, and kindred subjects." Whether these later efforts will bring about adequate results remains to be seen, but it cannot be questioned that the last three methods are more in accord with fundamental Quakerism than the first.

Notwithstanding the local differences mentioned above, the Friends have never been more closely united than at present; their foreign-mission work has never been more extensive or better organized; nor has greater practical interest been taken in education, more interest in social and neighborhood betterment, more extended or deeper spiritual interest among the younger members; and, while the old revivalist methods have fallen largely into disuse, there is a genuine evangelistic spirit of outreaching and upbuilding very general throughout the body. To these must be added the extensive relief and reconstruction work or "service of love," as it has been called, in which all the Friends have been engaged since 1917. It is impossible to overestimate the importance of this service. Taken up originally with the simple desire to aid those suffering from the war, and to show that pacifists were not necessarily shirkers of service, this self-sacrificing, voluntary labor has developed and extended into an almost international work. Great trust and responsibility have been placed, unasked, upon the Friends, and their name has become known far and wide in this connection. There is also a prospect of the continuance of this or similar work both at home and abroad.

That the reaction of recent movements within the Society has already been great is evident; what it will be in the future it is too soon to predict. One effect of the war and the relief service has been to lead many not only to examine more fully into the grounds of their religious belief, an examination to which the Young Friends' Movement has contributed in no small degree, but also to see what part the Friends should take in the effort to strengthen Christian faith and rebuild society on a Christian basis. Moreover, national and world conditions seem to call, as never before, from the Friends for a greater service, not only in definitely religious work, but also in the fields of labor adjustment and social betterment and uplift, a service for which their democratic Christian organization, their emphasis on positive good-will, and their simple religious faith would seem peculiarly to fit them.

The Friends, like the other churches, are thus facing serious problems both internal and external, the solution of which is still unknown and in the future; but to adopt the words of another, "They look forward with courage and confidence, believing that the good hand of God which has been over them in blessing in the past is still guiding them and will continue to lead them into larger service for him who is the Master of us all."

1 Professor Williston Walker regarding the Congregationalists in the American Journal of Theology, XXIV, 18.