14

creditable results. In Europe the general history is done in collaboration. The most notable of these new handbooks is the Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte (2v. 1924-25), edited by Bertholet and Lehmann and written by specialists of international authority.

Opening his lectures at the Collège de France, in 1908, Jean Réville referred to the need of a history of the history of religions and sketched its outlines. Many scholars have contributed to the structure.15 The work has been completed in a masterly way by H. Pinard de la Boullaye. His L'Étude comparée des Religions (Vol. I, Son histoire dans le monde occidental, 1922), is a marvel of painstaking erudition and adds one more item to the debt of the science of religion to Jesuit scholarship.

The area of primitive religions has been a battle-ground. Inspired by the evolutionary hypothesis scholars undertook to find the law of religious evolution. This involved arranging the phenomena found among preliterate peoples in the order of their appearance in the history of the race. The difficulty was to know what was the ultimate starting-point. Primitive revelation had few adherents among the new scientists and Lubbock's primitive atheism was contradicted by the evidence of ideas of extra-human powers in all early cultures. The fetish theory of De Brosses was discarded. Leon Marillier followed Guyau and started with panthelism. Tyler's animism, presented in his scholarly Primitive Culture, seemed destined

"Hopkins, History of Religions (1918); Moore, History of Religions (Vol. I, 1913, 2d ed. 1920, Vol. II, 1919). Other works, but with an apologetic cast are Soper, The Religions of Mankind (1921); Barton, The Religions of the World (1919); Hume, The World's Living Religions (1924).

15

5 Jastrow, The Study of Religion (1901), pp. 1–57; Hardy, "Zur Geschichte der vergleichenden Religionsforschung," Archiv f. Religionswissenschaft (1901); Jordan, Comparative Religion, Its Genesis and Growth (1905); J. Réville, Les phases successive de l'histoire des religions (1909); Beth, Einfürung in die Vergl. Religionsgeschichte (1920); Gruppe, Geschichte der klassischen Mythologie und Religionsgeschichte (1921); Lehmann, “Zur Geschichte der Religionsgeschichte," in Bertholet and Lehmann, Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte (1924), I, 1-22.

to capture the best minds. Albert Réville, however, among others insisted that the naturism of Max Müller might be equally as early as animism. With the discovery of the "mana" words in all parts of the world there developed the theory of preanimism, suggested by Preuss, followed by Marett, Hartland, Lowie, and others. As interest turned to the group control of religion the Durkheim school placed totemism at the beginning, others began with the primary needs of food and sex. Andrew Lang and the Catholic school defended the thesis of primitive monotheism. In addition to the difficulty of determining the ultimate primordium there was also the problem of the priority of magic or religion. Out of these conflicts of opinion grew an immense literature, to the great illumination of the primitive field.1o

The controversies centered about totemism, the relation of magic to religion, and the "high gods" of the primitives. The debate over totemism was shared by Frazer, Jevons, Marillier, Lang, Reinach, Wundt, de Visser, Toutain, Loisy, Durkheim, Söderblom, Lowie, Goldenweiser, Schmidt, and van Gennep. It was discovered that totemism was not universal, was not the earliest form of religion, and assumed different forms and meanings according to place and time." The magic-religion controversy ended in the same clarification. When the actual behavior was studied neglecting the nebulous words "magic" and "religion" it was seen that the same mechanism and extra-human power were involved in rites classed under both heads, and that the two formed one complex in primitive life. Some of these activities however were approved and some dis

16 A vast store of materials is in Frazer, The Golden Bough (12v., 1907-13); Typical uses of the materials in Reinach, Cultes, Mythes et Religions (4v., 1904-12); Toy, Introduction to the Study of Religions (1913); Hopkins, The Origin and Evolution of Religion (1923); Moore, The Birth and Growth of Religion (1924); Durkheim, Les formes élémentaires de la vie religieuse (1912, Eng. trans. 1915).

17

Van Gennep, L'état actuel du problème totemique (1920); Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy (4V., 1910-11); Goldenweiser, "Totenism, an Analytical Study," Jour. of Amer. Folklore, Vol. XXIII (1910); many writers in Anthropos, Vol. IX (1914) ff.

19

approved by the group, the latter tending to form a feared and forbidden class.18 The status of the high gods1o of early peoples is still unsettled. Catholic scholars find them where others do not. Söderblom thinks they are vaguely conceived Urheber, creators or authors of the world. Pettazzoni, in an extensive survey, makes the attractive suggestion that they represent the reaction of early peoples to the sky or heaven powers. This simple social reaction to friendly nature powers is probably as early as any other form of religion, though it is hardly monotheism. Group ceremonies related to the imperative needs of living may be equally early. So also may be the reaction to the superusual, the "mana" reaction. The quest for a single origin and a law of unilinear development may have come to an end.

Careful studies of preliterate peoples have been made in every section of the world during the period. These may now be compared with the reports of missionaries or travelers of past centuries among the same peoples. In addition to the special studies listed above, intensive work has been done on mythology,20 magic,21 mana,22 secret societies,23 and social organization." Most valuable has been the achievement of the Marett, The Threshold of Religion (1914); "Magic (Primitive)," E. R. E.; Goldenweiser, "Magic and Religion," Psychological Bulletin, March, 1919, pp. 83–89, Bibliography.

18

19

1o Lang, The Making of Religion (1898); Schmidt, Der Ursprung der Gottesidée (1914), a survey of opinions; Söderblom, in Archiv für Religionswissenschaft, XVII (1914), 1-16; Pettazzoni, Dio, Formazione e sviluppo del monoteismo nella storia della religioni (1922).

20

Gray, editor, Mythology of all Races (1916– -).

21 Skeat, Malay Magic (1900); Fossey, La Magie Assyrienne (1902); Henry, La Magie dans l'Inde antique (1904); Thompson, Semitic Magic (1908); Budge, Egyptian Magic (1901); Moret, La magie dans l'Egypte ancienne (1907); Hubert et Mauss, "Ésquisse d'une théorie génerale de la magie," Année Sociologique, 1902–3.

"Karutz, "Der Emanismus," Zeitschrift für Ethnologie (1913), pp. 545–611; Lehmann, Mana (1922); Goldenweiser, "Spirit, Mana, and the Religious Thrill," Jour. of Philos., 1915, pp. 632-40.

28

(1909).

Webster, Primitive Secret Societies (1908); Van Gennep, Les Rites de passage

"Lowie, Primitive Society (1920); Goldenweiser, Early Civilization (1922), pp. 235-91; Rivers, Kinship and Social Organization (1914).

group

ethnologists in delimiting cultural areas.25 The American has been more cautious than the English or the German. Their work forecasts the possibility of carrying scientific history into the study of early religions, making the very necessary check and complement for the psychological technique.

In Egypt, archaeological research has brought to light deeper levels of antiquity, new texts of various periods, and tomb furnishings of unexpected informational possibilities. In addition to scores of monographs on funerary texts (Budge, Naville), gods (Sethe, Allen, Budge, Boylan, Murray), medicine (Wreszinski), ethics (Baillet), the period has given collections of texts,20 histories of Egypt," and of the Egyptian religion" supplementing the earlier work of Maspero, Erman, and Petrie.

Babylonia, Assyria, and the adjacent empires, as they emerge more completely to view create new problems. The pan-Babylonian theory (Winckler, Jeremias) and the panEgyptian theory (Eliot Smith, Perry) have lost support. Controversy centers temporarily on the place of the Amorites, whose importance and priority in the Semitic world are argued by Clay and denied by Barton.29 The discovery of the Hammurabi code at the beginning of the century revealed the advanced civilization of the capital of his empire. New findings

25 Wissler, The American Indian (1917, 2d ed. 1922); Reports, Bureau of American Ethnology; Eliot Smith, Migrations of Early Culture (1915); Schmidt und Koppers, Völker und Kulturen (1914-); Rivers, History of Melanesian Society (2v., 1914).

28

Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt (5v., 1906–7).

"Breasted, History of Egypt (1906, new ed. 1921); Wiedemann, Das Alte Aegypten (1920).

* Steindorf, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians (1905); Foucart, Histoire des Religions et méthode comparative (1912); Breasted, Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt (1912); Erman, Egyptian Religion (Eng. trans. 1907). Clay, Amurru, the Home of the Northern Semites (1909), The Empire of the Amorites (1919), The Antiquity of the Amorites (1924); Barton, "The Place of the Amorites in the Civilization of Western Asia," Jour. Amer. Oriental Society, XLV, 1-38; reply by Clay, pp. 119-51.

of archaeology in Phoenicia, in North Syria, and the interpretation of the Hittite writing by Hronzý (1915) advance the reconstruction of the relations of peoples in this area. The Sumero-Akkadian inscriptions have been made available in translation, beginning in 1905." The Tammuz cycle has been presented by Zimmern, Jastrow, and Langdon. In the history of the religions Professor Jastrow's works32 stand almost alone.

31

The place of most importance in the Moslem field must be given to a work of co-operative scholarship, the Encyclopedia of Islam, appearing since 1908 in three languages, English, French, and German. The most outstanding individual achievement is the great collection of source-material in the Annali dell'Islam (8v., 1905-18), by Prince Caetani. Knowledge of every phase of this religion has been advanced. The conditions of pre-Moslem Arabia, the relations of Jews, Christians, and Arabs before Mohammed, the life of the prophet, the making of the Koran, the nature of the Hadith, the political development, law, ethics, theology, the sects and the mystics have all been subjects of special research with the result that Islam appears in a very different character after twentyfive years." Many general studies of the religion** have been Thureau-Dangin, Les inscriptions de Sumer et d'Akkad (1905).

Die Religion Babyloniens und Assyriens (1905-12); Aspects of Religious Belief in Babylonia and Assyria (1911).

'Noeldeke, "Arabs (Ancient)," E.R.E.; Margoliouth, Mohammed and the Rise of Islam (1905); Guidi, L'Arabie antéislamique (1921); Dussaud, Les Arabes en Syrie avant de l'Islam (1907); Lammens, Le Berceau de l'Islam (1914); Philby, The Heart of Arabia (1932); Huart, Histoire des Arabes (2V., 1921-23); Goldziher, Vorlesung über den Islam (1910, 2d ed. 1925, Eng. trans.); Guillaume, The Traditions of Islam (1924); Lammens, "Qoran et Tradition," Récherches de Sc. Rel. (1910); Wellhausen, Das Arabische Reich und seine Sturz (1902); Andrae, Die Person Muhammeds (1917); Nicholson, The Mystics of Islam (1914), The Idea of Personality in Sufism (1923); Bauer, Islamische Ethik (3V., 1916-22); Browne, Materials for the Study of the Babi Religion (1918); Walter, The Ahmadiya Movement (1922); Mez, Die Renaissance des Islams (1922).

Macdonald, The Religious Life and Attitude in Islam (1909), Aspects of Islam (1911); Hurgronji, Mohammedanism (1916); Arnold, The Preaching of Islam (1913).