The Pekingese,* in pronouncing such words as ho [], and hê, [], not only often confuse one sound with the other, but produce in addition a doubtful sound between the two, which doubtful vowel sound is not so long and é-like as in the above-mentioned word ch'e. This is the short Corean ê [i.e. e or ö]. The vowel which is here written i exists in Russian as in Corean, both in its long and short forms: it also exists in its short form in the Ningpo dialect, [see China Review, Vol. XIII], which short form closely resembles the obscure final vowel in the word final. It is hopeless to attempt to define the long form precisely, but it is between the vowel in Sir Thomas Wade's tzu or chih and that in chi. It is not yet obvious to the writer why the Coreans ever required the vowel ǎ, which, like a, has its long and short forms; but this matter will be investigated and discussed in its proper place. Suffice it to say that long ǎ and short ă are sometimes used for long a and short a ; short à is very often interchangeable with short ; and ii and i are occasionally interchanged; long é and long i also; and short é is often interchanged with short a. Thus we see that, although each simple Corean vowel has two sounds, and only two sounds, the carelessness of Coreans causes them to be almost habitually interchanged; though there seems good reason to believe that the true form can always be ascertained.

Now, one very important fact is of great weight (1) in determining what any given vowel ought to be; (2) in determining its ancient Chinese tone; (3) in tracing back pure Corean by the light of Chinese Corean.

The rule discovered is:-All Chinese words adopted into Corean which, in Chinese, are in the departing tone, have long vowels; and all Chinese words adopted into Corean which, in Chinese, are in the even tone, have long vowels. Thus, tong, [], is in the even tone, and is pronounced like the vowel in the English word tongs: tong, [according to the comparative tables above alluded to written toung], is in the departing tone [], and is pronounced with the same vowel as that in the word tone. This system runs through the whole imported Chinese language, and the fact is of the very utmost importance as a key which must sooner or later disclose many mysteries.

The exceptions which would mislead students unacquainted with comparative Chinese philology are:—

1.-A small number of Chinese words which are, even in China, totally irregular in nearly all dialects.

*This is perhaps done more at Takn and Tientsin than at Peking.

2.-A larger number of Chinese words which belong to the departing tone in the north and to the rising tone in the south of China.

3.-A much smaller number of words which the Chinese rhyming rules place in one tone, and modern practice in another.

4. Certain arbitrary exceptions introduced into Corean speech: this includes accidents, vulgarisms, necessity of distinguishing homophons, &c.

The rule, however, is absolute, and may be proved by any one having the necessary command of Chinese tone knowledge. The effect of this rule must of necessity be very wide, and leads at once to the following reflections:

1.—If, in speech, the common people so invariably lengthen and shorten their vowel according to whether the word uttered is or is not in the even tone in China, what is the corresponding key to the long and short vowels in Corean words not derived from Chinese?

2. As the "even" and "departing" tone affects in much the same way (though not precisely the same) words in modern Foochow, (where tones exist), and modern Chinese-Corean (where tones do not exist;* is it not likely that modified vowels (as vividly seen in German), and tones (as surviving in Chinese), are often traceable to the same source, Foochow being a rare instance of the two phenomena existing at the same time?

3. If reference be made to the writer's paper on the Wênchow dialect, China Review, Vol. XII, Page 169, it will been seen that, on entirely different grounds, tones have been traced back in the main to the "even" and "departing" distinctions: this view is now strongly supported.†

4. If reference be made to the writer's paper in the China Review on Tonic and Vocal Modification in the Foochow Dialect, Volume VII, Page 185, it will be seen that the theory was broached some years ago that in all languages there has been a struggle for mastery between vocal and tonal modification; and, since then, the writer has observed in Mr. Hunter's work on India that the Dravidian tongues lose their tones in proportion as they gain inflections. On the other hand, Père Dallet points out resemblances between the Corean and Dravidian tongues. Finally, if reference be made to Mr. S. T. Lay's article upon cantus, published in the Repository for 1838, it will be seen that there is some possibility that the Greek continuum, divisum, and medium, as also the

* See the article Chinese, Corean and Japanese, where Mr. Satow's view is qualified. There will be something to say about the "rising" and "entering" tones in Corean, but the subject is not yet ripe,

quantity" of Latin syllables, may yet be traced back to tones. The Sanskrit udâtta and svarita have already been alluded to by the writer in Chinese Notes.

The above is perhaps enough, in connection with a peculiarly abstruse and dry subject, for one "meal," but the importance of the above clear rule should not be lost sight of by students of any of the "Yellow Languages," on which the said rule is certain sooner or later to shed great light.

DR. MATEER'S

GEOMETRY-A REVIEW.*

BY REV. A. P. MARTIN, D.D.

THE advent of Euclid forms an epoch in the history of China only second in importance to the introduction of Christianity. For from that day dates the long preparation for the reign of science, which is destined to exercise as much influence on the mental and material state of the Chinese as the Christian Religion will on their spiritual condition. The forerunner of both-the vox clamantis— the apostle at once of religion and science, was the illustrious Ricci.

Paul Seu, the learned Hanlin who aided him in the translation of Euclid, was prepared by his new views of exact science to accept the higher revelation of Divine Truth; and thus it was that Euclid proved to be a lever which began slowly but surely to move the inert man of this eastern world.

But as the legislation of Moses became in time a yoke of bondage which required to be broken, so the paramount influence of Euclid grew into something like a bondage in the East as well as in the West. In the West a wholesome revolt took place long ago; which had the effect of setting aside his clumsy methods, in favor of more concise demonstrations; and especially of abridging his processes by the aid of Algebra-to say nothing of the recent attack on his axioms, and the introduction of what is called a noneuclidean geometry.

In China he has reigned with undisputed sway for three centuries, and nothing has been done even in the way of simplification until the appearance of this work of Dr. Mateer.

It is a strange fact that Ricci's Euclid was left standing through all these ages in the condition of a truncated pyramid. Only six books were translated by the great Jesuit; and the remaining nine were supplied about thirty years ago, by Mr. Alex. Wylie aided by professor Li Shenlon.

*. "A New Geometry in Chinese," compiled by Dr. C. W. Mateer. 2. vols. Presbyterian Mission Press, Shanghai.

That Mr. Wylie should have had his thought directed to the completion of that famous work, is not surprising; but it is a matter of no little astonishment that he should not have felt the want of something more concise and lucid for practical use.

The explanation of Mr. Wylie's omission and of Dr. Mateer's attempt to supply it, is to be found in the fact that the former had no practical experience; while the latter has had an abundance of it having taken many classes of Chinese youth through a complete course from the lower to the highest branches of Mathematics.

Mr. Wylie followed up his completion of Euclid by the translation of Loomis' Analytical Geometry and Differential Calculus. He would have done better, if he had begun his series of Mathematical text-books by a version of Loomis' Geometry, which following the footsteps of Legendre presents the whole subject in a compact and easily intelligible form.

After using Euclid for many years Dr. Mateer's experience has led him to build on the stone which the former builder rejected. He has taken Loomis for the basis of his present text book; and improved it by the addition of useful matter from Robinson, Peck, and Watson. In his Chinese Preface he calls the work a compilation, but he does not fail to direct the student to his principal authority.

Professor Loomis is himself a compiler; and for that matter, it is not certain that Euclid was anything more than a collector of demonstrations. Yet any man, who without discovering a royal road to geometry, contributes to the improvement of the present highway by rendering it less arduous, and more attractive, deserves to be commended to the grateful remembrance of the Chinese. Native mathematicians sometimes make offerings to the spirits of Newton, Euclid and others. Our Yale professor introduced by Wylie and Mateer is a candidate for the next vacancy that occurs in the circle of the immortals; nor would it be surprising if his missionary sponsors should also be enveloped in the cloud of incense,

The following lines show how this new work strikes the mind of a native scholar. Mr. Sakan, one of our professors of Mathematics—a disciple of professor Li, who aided in the translation of Euclid-says of it; "This book presents the principles of geometry in a more concise form than Euclid and omits nothing of importance that is found in Euclid. Besides the chapter on the three round bodies, there are throughout many excellent theorics that were unknown to Euclid, especially those relating to spherical triangles, so essential to the study of astronomy."

In conclusion I may say, what I should have begun with, that the title of the book is an index to its character. The older work,

, announced itself as the "First Book in the Science of Quantity "a statement true but vague. This one comes to the Chinese as, the Science of Form, which gives them a definite idea of its object.

The name which Euclid gave to his work signifies the "Mensurations of Land," but it is used by us without reference to its original meaning. So, the name of the translation of Euclid, has come to signify to the Chinese not quantity or mathematics, but a special branch of it. Language is plastic and too much time is In this case a concise and lucid

spent in disputing about names.

title leads us to expect a concise and lucid exposition, and we are not disappointed.

Tungwen College, Peking, 12th June, 1886.

JAMES CHAPTER V, VERSE 5.

By Rev. J. EDKINS, D.D.

THE Syriac has "Ye have nourished your bodies as in a day of slaughter." The word for as is ayab. The word for slaughter is nkas, and it is in the dictionary explained as sacrifice, slaying a victim, victim. This does not support Mr. Giles' view (Recorder July p. 260, 261,) "You have taken care of yourselves when others were perishing around you." Rev. W. W. Royall, p. 148 says the idea is that of feasting to repletion and caring for naught else. Pool's Synopsis quotes, Vorstius and Estius as supporting the interpretation "victim." "In the day of the victim," Bengel says, the Ethiopic omits this whole clause, and that of this Mill approves. Bengel retains it and translates as "in the day of slaughter." He supposes the slaughter to be for a feast not for a sacrifice. With this agrees the view of Erasmus and others who think the day of slaughter to be a day of joy when all are delighted with the good fare provided for them. This reminds us of the passage, My oxen and my fatlings are killed," given as a reason why guests should come.

66

De Wette has "Ihr habt eure Herzen gemästet wie am Schlachttage," Ye have fattened your hearts as in the day of slaughter. Calvin's version is the same as King James'.

The Revised Version and the Vulgate are obscure. What is meant by saying "Ye have nourished your hearts in a day of slaughter"? Neither the picture of the feast nor of the sacrifice is there and the passage is open to mean war, or a judicial execution