standard of education is that of the elementary school; the theoretical instruction includes writing, arithmetic, also bookkeeping; practical instruction includes domestic work about the household as well as dairying. A horticultural school at Norrviken opened in 1890, is coeducational in character. It is the only school of its kind in Sweden, and in a two years' course trains in the practical management of a garden and in floriculture. COOKING AND HOUSEKEEPING SCHOOLS.1 In Sweden it is only exceptionally that cooking and domestic work are taught at the girls' schools. To supply this deficiency in the education of the young ladies, several families send their daughters, after having finished school, to a housekeeping school in the country, where they spend from six to twelve months. The housekeeping school at Björnsnäs for the education of housewives, receives boarders from the age of 16, and teaches cooking, the principles of housekeeping, practically and theoretically, preserving, baking, salting and curing, washing and ironing, cleaning, weaving, art needlework, etc. The annual time of instruction comprises an autumn term, from August 15 to December 15, and a spring term, from January 15 to June 15. The annual fee is 750 crowns ($201). Other provincial housekeeping schools, established on the same principles, are the practical school at Samuelsberg for teaching young ladies housekeeping and manual work; Miss Ellen Möller's housekeeping school for young girls; the Alingsås school of languages and domestic work, which, besides imparting instruction in household work, offers an opportunity of learning modern languages, etc. In Stockholm there are also several housekeeping schools, where the young girls, while living at home, are taught housekeeping during some hours' daily attendance. Such is (1) the new housekeeping school, which teaches educated young ladies the theory and practice of plain or more elaborate cooking, preserving fruit and vegetables, ironing, and other domestic occupations; it thus enables them in a practical way to manage a house. Each course comprises a time of four and one-half months. A limited number of pupils are admitted to each course. To those who have attended three months at least a testimonial is given. The pupils assemble every week day at 8 a. m., and the work is kept up till 4 or 5 p. m. The fee is 225 crowns ($60) for a complete course. For a shorter time, 60 crowns ($16) a month. (2) The Stockholm cooking school, founded in 1882 by Mrs. Anna Hierta-Retzius with a grant of 5,000 crowns ($1,340) from the foundation of "In Memoriam of Lars Hierta," is the first school in Sweden where cooking solely (with baking 1 Résumé of article in Reports of Swedish Ladies' Committee; also information from Madame HiertaRetzius. 2 In Stockholm, cooking is taught in two of the girls' higher schools: Dr. Schwartz's and the Athenæum for girls. and preserving) was taught with the exclusion of other housework. For this reason, the course has since the very beginning been limited to three months only. In this cooking school, the physiology of nutrition and domestic economy are first theoretically taught by means of lectures on those subjects. The pupils are also trained in marketing under the teacher's guidance. Those who have passed a complete course obtain a testimonial. The food is served à la carte to ladies and gentlemen taking their dinners at the school (from 2 to 4.30 p. m.). The original object of this school was to introduce cooking as a subject of information among the daughters of the working classes, to qualify them for housework in their own homes after having passed through the national school. During the first three years the fee was 10 crowns ($2.68) a month (and dinner free of charge), but was later increased to 20 crowns ($5.36) a month, and, to make the school selfsupporting, admission was granted, with a double fee, to two or three married or unmarried young ladies of the cultured classes, who, up to that time, had no opportunity of learning in so short a time. For ladies engaged to be married a shorter course (of six weeks) was arranged. Finally, cookery teachers have been trained at this school, to facilitate the introduction in future of cooking as a subject of education in the national schools. In September, 1892, instruction in cooking and domestic economy having been introduced as a subject of information at the higher training college, Mrs. Hierta-Retzius's Cooking School was made over to the board of the above-mentioned college, the founder, however, having undertaken to guarantee the school funds. Cooking at a national school was first taught in 1889 at the parish of St. Nicholas, in Stockholm, the information on this subject being introduced on the initiative of Mrs. Sofi Nilsson, a national school teacher, who during many years' work had realized the necessity of raising the standard of practical work. The school board having agreed to fit up a kitchen in one of the schoolhouses, five to six girls from the highest class were allowed to leave their school work at 10 a. m. in order to learn to cook the food gratuitously distributed to their younger schoolfellows. On the initiative of Mrs. Hierta-Retzius and by means of an endowment from the foundation of "In Memoriam of Lars Hierta," a national school teacher, Miss Brolinsson, was sent to London to attend "The National Training School of Cookery" in South Kensington, and to study cooking as it is taught in the board schools in London. On her return the cooking school of St. Mary was founded, partly after the English plan, where a course was given to future cookery teachers. These women, who had previously passed a practical free course at Mrs. Retzius' cooking school and had practiced as cookery teachers in the school kitchen of St. Mary, passed an examination, received a certificate, and have since obtained employments as managers or assistants at cooking schools in Stockholm, Göteborg, and Vesterås. In four of the Stockholm national schools, those of St. Nicholas, St. Clara, St. Mary, and Hedvig Eleonora, the girls in the highest classes, generally to the number of thirty from each school, have been taught cooking and baking and have undertaken by turns to carry out such work. The girls, who do the washing up, the house cleaning, etc., seem to keep up a lively interest in the matter, and many opinions expressed in the children's homes show that the parents also duly appreciate the instruction given. One thing strictly impressed upon the children is the necessity of cleanliness, order, and economy. The ingredients of the various dishes, the cost, and the method of preparation are written down by the girls in special books. The quantity and price are, as a rule, calculated for six people. Thus, when finishing school, the girls bring home with them a little cookery book made by themselves and containing receipts tried by them and comprising the dishes mostly used in ordinary, simple houses. The expenses for these cooking schools are defrayed partly by private people, partly by the respective parishes. The teaching of this subject having begun to gain more sympathy in the national schools of the capital, the following general rules have been established and are to be enforced from the beginning of 1892: (1) The girls who take part in the work at the cooking school are divided into groups of four to six each; (2) these groups are selected out of the two highest girls' classes of the school; (3) the girls who during their school time have taken a share in the cooking work will be allowed to continue it for one term after having left school; (4) no more than three groups (exceptionally and for special reasons, four) are selected out of each school class; (5) each group has instruction for two consecutive days in cooking; (6) after the groups from one class in school have in turn attended the cooking school, four days at least must elapse before they begin again (during the interval, groups from the other class are taught); (7) school girls belonging to the cooking school must, before going there, attend the first two lessons of the day (from 8 to 10). In 1870 a practical housekeeping school was inaugurated in Stockholm, which served as a model school for those since created in Upsala, Göteborg, Lund, etc. Opening with six pupils some 200 girls (in 1891) had received three years' practical training. Pupils are received at 16 years of age, "if of good disposition;" they learn the duties of laundress, waitress, chambermaid, and have instruction "in finer cooking." In 1879 the school established a shop of its own for the sale of bread, cake, etc., and in 1881 established a store for cooked provisions. The mending of garments is taught one afternoon each week, and there is regular instruction in the sewing room. FRESH-AIR FUND COLONIES. As will be observed, the Swedes give practical training of many kinds to their youth, and they do not neglect the "weak and sickly children" nor the hygienic side of education.1 In 1885 the Society of the Fresh-Air Fund was established in Stockholm, its object being to provide summer homes in the country for weak and sickly school children, especially from the public schools of Stockholm. From that date to 1891 there were 148 colonies sent out, which included 3,352 children. The number in a colony is usually limited to 25. As the principal objects of the sojourn are rest and opportunity to be in the fresh air as much as possible, all school work is forbidden, but the children are not idle in consequence. The girls have to keep the rooms in order, set the table, assist in the kitchen; the boys keep the yard and vicinity of the house in good order, carry water and wood, carry the mail, etc. The children have to keep their clothing in order also, under the direction of the matron of the colony or her assistant. The regular life, where strictness with regard to order, cleanliness, and good conduct is the governing principle, has proved most successful in the moral development of the children in the colony homes, and agreeable changes in their behavior after their return to the city have been recognized by their teachers and parents. The result of the colony life, from a sanitary point of view, is consid ered by physicians to be especially successful. The examination of 58 children of an average age of 10 years, who had been in two separate colonies in 1891, showed that "the boys gained 1.03 kilograms in weight, 1.3 centimeters in height, and 8 centimeters in breadth of chest, while the girls gained 1.19 kilograms in weight, 1.7 centimeters in height, and 1 centimeter in breadth of chest. The painful and dull expression and the weak, shuffling motions which were observed at the beginning of the outing disappear during the two months' visit in the country, and the bright, happy faces, the clear and frank gaze, the healthy appearance and lively movements, all witness to the benefit gained, not only for a short summer but doubtless for life." The Woman's Union in Göteborg sent out 181 colonists in 1891, and the cities of Norrkjöping and Gefle are also sending out summer colonies of school children. TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. The seventh meeting of the Scandinavian School Congress (Sjünde Allmäanna Nordiska Skolmötet) was held in Stockholm, August 6-8, 1895. This congress meets every five years at one of the three Scandinavian capitals. In attendance were nearly 7,000 teachers; 3,700 from For description of the investigation of hygienic conditions by the school commission appointed for such purpose, see Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1888–89, pp. 220-221. ED 96- -32 Sweden, 1,200 from Norway, 1,500 from Denmark, and 300 from Finland. During the three-day's session about fifty papers were read and discussed, interest in them being shown by educators and also by the authorities. The minister of public instruction, Mr. Gilljam, took part in the meetings which were presided over by prefect Themptander. The subjects awakening the most earnest discussions were, religious education in the school, historical instruction, and the peace movement. Papers were also read on the peasant high schools, on university extension, the Swedish school system, sloyd instruction, etc. The social pleasures attendant upon this congress were a special feature of the occasion, and the fraternal feeling between the countries seemed strengthened by this congress. An historical presentation of the peasants' high schools-the first having been established in Rodding, Denmark, in 1814-was given, and due honor was done to N. F. S. Grundtvig, who is considered their founder. The strong development of the Real school, with its practical training for life's duties, was clearly brought out. The absolute need of thoroughness in the mother tongue before other languages are studied was discussed, also the study of phonetics. Physical education awakened interest; stress was laid upon the necessity of the teacher's knowledge of his pupils' organization, or injury, instead of improvement, might result from overtraining. Reform methods in different grades of schools were presented, the desire being to prevent overburdening of mind with its natural reaction upon the body. Hygienic and sanitary methods were discussed from the standpoint of the teachers present from the three countries. In the matter of reform spelling and phonetics, the pioneers of this phase of education in different countries were referred to, and those teachers taking part in the discussions recognized the fact that changes might be made which would be beneficial to people of various nationalities (Vor Ungdom, 1895, Hefte 1-6). II. EDUCATION IN ICELAND.1 AUTHORITIES: Letter from Mr. Magnus Stephensen, governor-general of Iceland; Buisson; Dictionnaire de Pédagogie et d'Instruction Primaire, v. 2, 1re partie; Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol. XII; International Encyclopedia, v. 7; Johnson's Encyclopedia, v. 4; Barnard's Journal of Education, Vol. XXIII; XIX Century, v. 8; Revee Internationale de l'Enseignement, Août, 1895; Statesman's Year Book, 1895. AREA AND POPULATION. Ethnologically and politically considered Iceland is an integral part of Scandinavia, that group of kindred countries usually called the North (Norden) by their own peoples. The countries so designated are the "United Kingdoms" (De forenede Riger), Sweden and Norway, Prepared by Miss Frances Graham French, specialist in the school systems of northern and eastern Europe. |