endeavors to widen women's field of employment; in 1860 she founded the Victoria Press, in which women were employed as compositors. Queen Victoria made Miss Faithful her printer and publisher in ordinary. For eighteen years she published the Victoria Magazine, in which she advocated the claim of women to remunerative employment in branches of business monopolized by men. She twice visited the United States, giving lectures, and published a novel entitled "Change upon Change.` HUXLEY, Prof. THOMAS HENRY, the eminent scientist, at Eastbourn, England, June 29; born May 4, 1825, at Eating, Middlesex; received common school education; graduated in medicine at Charing Cross Hospital, and entered the royal navy as an assistant surgeon. He served under Sir John Richardson, the Arctic explorer and naturalist, and was on the Rattlesnake when it was engaged in the survey of the Barrier Reef of Australia, New Guinea, and the Louisiade Archipelego under the command of Captain Stanley. Among the first of his efforts was the publication of the "Description of the Calycophorida of the Voyage of the Rattlesnake." In 1854 he succeeded Edward Forbes in the natural history chair of the School of Mines. From 1863 to 1869 he was Hunterian professor in the Royal College of Surgeons, and during the absence of C. Wyville Thompson in 1875-76 filled his place as professor of natural history in the University of Edinburgh. He was a member of the London school board in 1870, was elected lord rector of the University of Aberdeen, and in 1881, at the death of Frank Buckland, he was called to the vacant post of inspector-general of salmon fisheries. Aside from his wide and thorough knowledge of his subjects, Profesor Huxley was extremely popular because of the simple and lucid style of his scientific discussions and writings. He was the author of a great many standard treatises on scientific subjects and the recipient of distinguished honors.

66

66

LUMBY, Rev. Dr. JOSEPH RAWSON, in Grantchester, England, November 21; born in Stanningly, Yorkshire. He was one of the revisers of the Old Testament, and at the time of his death was professor of divinity at Cambridge. He wrote Early Dissent, Modern Dissent, and the Church of England," "A History of Creeds," etc. MONCRIEFF, Lord JAMES WELLWOOD, in Edinburgh, April 27; born there in 1811; solicitor-general and lord advocate. In Parliament he labored to establish a national system of education in Scotland and carried several measures modernizing the old educational institutions. He was elected rector of Edinburgh University. PALMER, Rev. EDWIN, in Oxford, October 17; born in Mixbury, Oxfordshire, July 18, 1824; was educated at Oxford and a fellow at Balliol, 1848-1867; was professor of Latin in the university in 1870 and archdeacon of Oxford in 1878. He was one of the revisers of the New Testament, and edited the revised Greek text. PAYNE-SMITH, Rev. ROBERT, in Canterbury, March 31; born in Chipping Campden, Gloucestershire, November 7, 1819; was educated at Oxford, head master of the Kennsington Proprietary School; professor of divinity at Oxford, Bampton lecturer for 1869, and accepted the deanery of Canterbury in 1870. His great work as an oriental scholar was the "Thesaurus Syriacus." He was also a member of the Old Testament revision committee.

POOLE, REGINALD STUART, in London, February 8; born there February 27, 1832; spent most of his youth in Egypt with his uncle Edward, and while quite young became deeply engrossed in Egyptology. He lectured on that subject and on numismatics, and in 1885 was made professor of archæology in the University College. "Cities of Egypt" was published by him in 1882. SAVORY, Sir WILLIAM SCOVELL, in London, March 4; born in 1826; was educated in medicine at the College of Surgeons and London University. He was a fellow of the College of Surgeons, professor of comparative anatomy and physiology, and for several years president of the same institution.

SEELEY, Sir JOHN ROBERT, January 13; born in London in 1834; was educated at the City of London School and at Cambridge, where he graduated in 1857. He remained at Cambridge as a lecturer, was a master in the City of London School, and was elected professor of Latin in University College, London. He became professor of history at Cambridge in 1869, being at that time widely known as the author of "Ecce Homo," though he never publicly acknowledged the book as his own. The book was a common-sense survey of the life and work of Christ, which aroused great criticism on the side of the Evangelical party and was a stimulus to the thought of the time. He wrote a great many historical books of immense value.

STEPHENS, Prof. GEORGE, born in Liverpool, England, December 13, 1813; was

professor at Copenhagen University from 1855 until his death. Of his works the best was The Old Northern Runic Monuments of Scandinavia and England." THOROLD, Rt. Rev. Dr. ANTHONY WILSON, in Farnham Castle, Surrey, July 2; born in Hougham, Lincolnshire, June 13, 1825; educated at Oxford, Canon residentiary of York, Bishop of Rochester, and later of Winchester. Was a tireless worker, and published a number of volumes.

WILKORN, Prof. HENRY MAURICE, October 5; the distinguished German botanist. WILLIAMSON, WILLIAM CRAWFORD, in Clapham, June 23; born in Scarborough, November 24, 1816; practiced medicine in Manchester for some years, and was professor of natural history and geology at Owens College, 1851 to 1892. His · Organization of the Fossil Plants of the Coal Measures" has taken rank as high authority.

CHAPTER XXXVI.

CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS.

The statistics of city schools as a whole show little difference from year to year except in the matter of growth. The relation of the items to each other, as shown by the various ratios and percentages, change but little, and the changes of one year are often counterbalanced during the next. But cities still grow apace and the schools grow with them.

Two factors enter into the aggregate growth of cities, one being the growth of cities already recognized as such and the other being the growth of villages to the point where they must be classed with cities and their activities reckoned in any discussion of city affairs. The greater part of the increases that occur are ascribable to the former factor, for the growth of the same cities usually amount in the aggregate to about 44 per cent a year, while the increase due to the influx of new cities would probably not be over 2 per cent in any year. The difficulty of correctly determining the extent of the annual accessions has often been mentioned in these reports. There are scores of places that are nearing the boundary line that divides the village from the city, and unless there is an annual census it is impossible to say precisely how many of them come over the line in any year. It is hazardous, therefore, to present a list of "cities of over 8,000 inhabitants" without some reservation and qualification. But due diligence is exercised in the Bureau to discover evidences of growth, and care is taken in the admission of new cities. The lists presented are therefore as good as the facilities of this office permit, and are worthy of consideration if not of implicit confidence.

The following table shows the relative importance of the city school enrollment for the past six years. Prior to 1890-91 the statistics of all places having over 4,000 inhabitants were tabulated together, and it is not practicable to extend the comparison further than that year:

The comparatively low rate of growth indicated for the first two years in the above table is explainable by the difficulty in this office of discovering newly developed cities, a difficulty that was largely remedied in 1893-94 by beginning the systematic collection of school statistics of smaller places, in order to secure data as to their yearly growth. This measure at once disclosed the fact that 81 places not previously reckoned as having 8,000 inhabitants were worthy of consideration as cities. This heavy accession to the list ran up the percentage of increase shown by the tables to 8.68 per cent for that year, and counterbalanced the low figures of the two years previous.

EDUCATION REPORT,

1895-96.

The average annual increase indicated since 1890-91 has been 5.80 per cent in geometrical ratio. The enrollment in the table for 1890-91 is probably a little too low as compared with the other figures, and it is likely that the actual increase has been about 5.50 per cent or approximately that shown for the last two years. The last column in the table clearly shows the greater progress which cities and city schools are making in comparison with rural and village schools. These do not often decrease in actual numbers, but their relative gain is small in comparison with the city schools. The former class have gained only 1 per cent a year on an average since 1891. It is not yet practicable to go beyond this and determine the relative increase in village and in country schools, or, in other words, in graded and in ungraded schools; but there is every reason to believe that if the figures could be made they would show that even the 1 per cent increase comes entirely from schools in the villages. It is probable, in fact, that there is a steady decline in the number of country ungraded schools. New schools of this kind are constantly established, but on the other hand their number is being continually lessened by those which attain the dignity of the graded school.

The recent movement toward consolidating country schools and making graded schools of them must also have its effect upon their number within a few years at most.

In regard to the comparative tables in which the relations of the several statistical items to each other are shown, it may be said that no new tendencies of a permanent character are indicated, although many facts of interest are brought out, and additional evidence is disclosed of certain tendencies previously observed and mentioned.

The estimates of the several superintendents seem to show a continual decline in the relative enrollment in schools other than public. Of the whole number of children in school, there were in private and parochial schools 21.5 per cent in 1891-92, 21.2 per cent in 1892-93, 20.8 per cent in 1893-94, 20.3 per cent in 1894-95, and 19.6 per cent in 1895-96.

It must be confessed, however, that the statistics of private schools are far from satisfactory. Wholly without public control, and usually without public supervision, it is, except in two or three States, the legal duty of no local authority to collect or compile the statistics relating to them. And being often of temporary and evanescent character, to say nothing of their numbers, it is out of the question for this office to gather their statistics directly. An estimate is all than can be given in most cases; and since the use of estimates is necessary, no one is better capable of making those estimates than the city superintendents. Unfortunately even they are generally without any real basis for an estimate, and what is reported is often a mere guess. The tendency is noticeable, too, to "use the same figures as last year. enrollment in private and parochial schools stands almost stationary-the increase It is largely due to this, probably, that the reported in 1895-96 was only about three-fourths of 1 per cent-and since the public schools continually advance, the indicated proportion in the private schools naturally grows steadily less.

The figures in the tables are not wholly without value in themselves, but the principal reason that data confessedly unreliable are presented every year is the hope, which is founded on experience, that continually asking for certain facts will in time lead to the taking of steps to furnish them. The work of private schools is a necessary factor in the sum total of education. No thorough accounting can be made of the educational excellencies or deficiencies of any city unless they be taken into account, and this is especially important where any attempt is made to enforce compulsory attendance laws. For these purposes their statistics are just as essential as those of the public schools, and it is to be hoped that the time will soon come when their work will be as fully and as accurately recorded and reported as that of the public schools.

The average length of school term has increased 1.3 days over 1894–95, but this seems to be one of those variations that occur constantly without having any special significance in indicating a general tendency, since the average term in 1893-94 was 191.5, or one-tenth of a day longer than in 1895-96. The same absence of a general tendency may be seen in the changes in the per cent of attendance to enrollment, and in the number of pupils to each teacher.

But in regard to the matter of supervision, it is plain that supervising officers are becoming yearly more numerous. ratio, the proportion having steadily grown from 1 to 20.2 teachers four years ago. One supervisor to 17.9 teachers is now the The term "supervisors" must include, of course, all those who do not actually teach classes, but whose duties are to aid and direct those who do. Principals who do not teach, and specialists, like writing and drawing teachers, whose lessons are only for purposes of illustration, while the main work is done by class teachers,

are embraced in this category, as well as superintendents and assistant superintendents. There have been few instances of noticeably large accession to the supervising force, but as a whole the number has grown much more rapidly than either teachers or pupils. There is an increasing inclination to relieve principals of all teaching, and in some cities the rules requiring principals of large schools to teach a portion of each day have become dead letters through their nonobservance. Male teachers increased in number by only 36, that is, from 5,023 to 5,059, during the past year, while females have increased by 3,295, or from 61,971 to 65,266. In several of the larger cities there have been material reductions in the number of male teachers in the last year. There are now very few places in which men are employed as teachers in the elementary schools, nearly all the males reported being in the high schools or in the manual training shops. Men are still in the majority among principals and supervising officers, but even there the proportion of women is constantly increasing, and necessarily so; there are no training schools for officers, and the natural way to get them is by promotion from the ranks, and as there are only women in the ranks the officers will be women, too.

Notwithstanding the continuance of hard times the cost of the schools has increased more rapidly than the pupils. An examination of the detailed statistics for the last two years shows a number of conspicuous instances of reduction in the number of teachers; and it is a matter of common knowledge that in several cities there were general reductions in salaries. But all these were more than made up in the aggregate by increases in other cities. The average daily cost of instructing each pupil in attendance was less in 1895-96 than in the year before, but the schools were open a little longer and the number of pupils to each teacher was slightly greater, so that the average amount received by members of the supervising and teaching force actually increased from $625 to $643. It cost about 9 cents a day on an average to instruct a pupil; and other expenses, including new buildings, repairs, janitors, supplies, etc., ran the whole cost up to about 161 cents a day.

TABLE 1.-Summary of statistics of school systems of cities containing over 8,000 inhabitants, showing increase or decrease from previous year.

[NOTE. In the absence of an annual census it is impossible to prepare an absolutely correct list of cities of given size in any year. The totals presented, therefore, may vary somewhat from the true totals, but the percentages of increase should be approximately correct. See remarks on page 1487.]