to science; but he means the enthusiasm of weak heads. There is a strong and resolute enthusiasm in which science finds an ally; and it is to the lowering of this fire rather than to the diminution of intellectual insight that the lessening productiveness of men of science in their mature years is to be ascribed. Mr. Buckle sought to detach intellectual achievement from moral force. He gravely erred, for without moral force to whip it into action the achievements of the intellect would be poor indeed.

"It has been said that science divorces itself from literature, but the statement, like so many others, arises from lack of knowledge. A glance at the less technical writings of its leaders-of its Helmholtz, its Huxley, and its Du Bois-Reymond— would show what breadth of literary culture they command. Where among modern writers can you find their superiors in clearness and vigor of literary style? Science desires not isolation, but freely combines with every effort toward the bettering of man's estate. Single handed, and supported not by outward sympathy, but by inward force, it has built at least one great wing of the manymansioned home which man in his totality demands. And if rough walls and protruding rafter ends indicate that on one side the edifice is still incomplete, it is only by wise combination of the parts required with those already irrevocably built that we can hope for completeness. There is no necessary incongruity between what has been accomplished and what remains to be done. The moral glow of Socrates, which we all feel by ignition, has in it nothing incompatible with the physics of Anaxagoras which he so much scorned, but which he would hardly scorn to-day.

* *

*

· The world embraces not only a Newton, but a Shakespeare; not only a Boyle, but a Raphael; not only a Kant, but a Beethoven; not only a Darwin, but a Carlyle. Not in each of these, but in all, is human nature whole. They are not opposed, but supplementary; not mutually exclusive, but reconcilable. And if, unsatisfied with them all, the human mind, with the yearning of a pilgrim for his distant home, will still turn to the mystery from which it has emerged, seeking so to fashion it as to give unity to thought and faith, so long as this is done, not only without intolerance or bigotry of any kind, but with the enlightened recognition that ultimate fixity of conception is here unattainable, and that each succeeding age must be held free to fashion the mystery in accordance with its own needs-then, casting aside all the restrictions of materialism, I would affirm this to be a field for the noblest exercise of what, in contrast with the knowing faculties, may be called the creative faculties of man."

The actions of the lower animals are conditioned by sensations and momentary impulses. Man, on the other hand, is enabled to raise himself above fleeting sensations to the realm of ideas, and in that realm he finds his real life. Similarly man's will gradually frees itself from bondage to a chain of causes determined for it from without, and attains to a power of independent self-determination according to durable and continuing ends of action. This constitutes character, which, in Mr. Emerson's fine phrase, is the moral order seen through the medium of an individual nature. Freedom of the will is not, then, a metaphysical notion, nor is it obtained from nature or seen in nature. It is a development in the life of the human soul. Freedom and rationality are two names for the same thing, and their highest development is the end of human life. This development is not, as Locke thought, a process arising without the mind and acting upon it, a passive and pliable recipient. Much less is it one that could be induced in the statue of Condillac and Bonnet. It is the very life of the soul itself.

There is a striking passage in The Marble Faun in which Hawthorne suggests the idea that the task of the sculptor is not, by carving, to impress a figure upon the marble, but rather, by the touch of genius, to set free the glorious form that

the cold grasp of the stone imprisons. With similar insight, Browning puts these words into the mouth of his Paracelsus:

Truth is within ourselves; it takes no rise

From outward things, whate'er you may believe.
There is an inmost center in us all,

Where truth abides in fullness; and around,

Wall upon wall, the gross flesh heras it in,
This perfect, clear perception. * * *
* And, to know,

Rather consists in opening out a way

Whence the imprisoned splendor may escape,
Than in effecting entry for a light
Supposed to be without.

This is the poetical form of the truth that I believe is pointed to by both philosophy and science. It offers us a sure standing ground for our educational theory. It reveals to us, not as a hypothesis but as a fact, education as spiritual growth toward intellectual and moral perfection, and saves us from the peril of viewing it as an artificial process according to mechanical formulas. Finally, it assures us that while no knowledge is worthless, for it all leads us back to the common cause and ground of all, yet that knowledge is of most worth which stands in closest relation to the highest forms of the activity of that spirit which is created in the image of Him who holds nature and man alike in the hollow of His hand.

II.

THE RELATION OF MANUAL TRAINING AND ART EDUCATION.1

INTRODUCTORY ADDRESS.

By C. A. BENNETT, Professor of Manual Training, Teachers' College.

Not very long ago I heard the president of a Southern college deliver an address on educational work among the negroes. In the course of his address, in order to point out clearly the progress of the work in his own college.and to show the aptness of the negro to learn and his tendency to adopt the customs and ideas of the white man, he said: "When we began to teach sewing to our girls we taught them, among other things, to make plain aprons. It was not long before they wanted to put pockets on their aprons, and now they want to put ruffles around the bottoms."

This illustration may be used to suggest the steps of progress in other fields of education than the missionary work among the negroes of the South. Surely the negro has no monopoly on these progressive steps. They are the same that all civilized peoples have taken-first, the necessities; second, the conveniences; third, the luxuries. The thought suggested in this illustration, it seems to me, might be applied to the evolution of a course of instruction or the development of a subject in the school curriculum. May we not apply. it to the development of manual training work?

When manual training work began in this country, the courses of instruction consisted chiefly of exercises, pure and simple-exercises planned to teach the use of a given tool, or to teach a joint or some such element of construction. Soon the courses began to contain a few completed useful articles. The immediate application of some of the exercises or elements of construction were found to be advantageous. It became evident to many teachers that although teaching a principle as a principle was a good thing, it was also a good thing to emphasize

1 Papers read before the Second Annual Conference on Manual Training, Teachers' College, New York City, May 16, 1896.

and fix the principle by applying it. The useful article as a manual training exercise, especially in classes of elementary school grade, was found to be justifiable not only on economic grounds but on pedagogic as well. The result is that many teachers have so modified their courses that they now contain not only the individual joint, but also its application in a useful article.

Meanwhile the teachers of drawing have been teaching the children to draw graceful lines, and under the name "art education" are now helping them to appreciate beauty of form and proportion and encouraging them to study the principles of decorative art.

This is influencing the manual training work in many places to an extent that we hear something like the requests of the negro girl who wanted to put the ruffle around the bottom of her apron. The children wish to decorate the models they make. Whether we manual training teachers encourage it or not, we are sure to meet with this demand if we are so fortunate as to have pupils who have been taught by a competent teacher of free-hand drawing. The teachers of drawing are taking advantage of that instinct in the child which leads him to decorate the things he makes; children like to make things that are beautiful. If we do not follow the example of the drawing teacher in this, we shall not only fail to reenforce their work but we shall be liable to counteract the beneficial effects of it.

So long as we confined our work to joints and simple exercises there was little danger of either reenforcing or counteracting the work of the teacher of art work, but now that we have introduced the completed useful article into our courses we are in that danger. Certainly we are not willing to drop the useful article entirely out of our courses; neither are we willing to allow our work to counteract the work of the teacher of drawing. Our only alternative is to see that the useful articles in our courses are so well adapted to their intended use, so excellent in form and proportion, so appropriately decorated, if decorated at all, that they will meet an artist's criticism.

The fact that many manual training models, even some of those published in books, would not now bear such criticism is one of the principal reasons for our choice of subject for the conference to-day. Since this subject-the relation of manual training and art education-suggested itself, many questions have arisen in my mind upon which more light is needed: To what extent should decoration be introduced into manual training courses? Should manual training teachers make it a point to use those materials that lend themselves most readily to decorationclay and strips of iron, for example? Should we strive to make our models perfect in form and proportion and entirely omit decoration? What is the value of wood carving and what are its limitations? Should we endeavor to enrich our woodturning courses by introducing vase forms and the like involving subtle curves? How large a place should be given to ornamental ironwork in the forging course? Would a little work in stained glass be desirable after the work in soldering? Is it true that the beautiful interests the children before the useful? If so, how should this fact influence our manual-training work in the lower grades? How can the teacher of manual training get the most help from the teacher of free-hand drawing, and how can the free-hand drawing teacher's work be most helped by the teacher of manual training?

These are but a few of the questions that have arisen in the mind of a teacher of manual training. An entirely different list might suggest itself to a director of art education, and still another to a psychologist or a superintendent of public schools. It is for the discussion of all such questions that this conference is intended.

THE ESTHETIC ELEMENT IN MANUAL TRAINING.

By WALTER S. GOODNOUGH, Director of Art Education, Public Schools, Brooklyn, N. Y. All who are familiar with the history and progress of manual training in this country since the days when the Institute of Technology in Boston inaugurated the movement, through the efforts of Dr. Runkle, and made its first exhibition at the Centennial Exposition of 1876, are painfully aware that until very recently the æsthetic element has been largely wanting.

Just as drawing or so-called art instruction in public schools was introduced and continued for years almost entirely on a utilitarian basis of the narrowest kind, with little or no attempt at real art culture, so manual training has been too largely mechanical in its aim and methods. Manual-training schools and courses were planned with the mechanical processes largely in view. The mechanical drawing room was well provided. Though there may have been more or less free hand drawing, there was comparatively little real art training, such as would enable pupils to put art into their shopwork, and there was little provision for the artistic forms of manual training.

It has been well said that art values are the only permanent values; that is, looking back over the history of the world, all that we most cherish of that which has been left to us from the past is the art in one or another tangible form. It may be architecture, sculpture, painting, music, literature, or industrial art.

It is the amount of art in most works produced by man that chiefly affects their value. Art is one of the greatest creators of value.

It is not the mere imitation of art forms that we should have in our manual training school courses, but such training as will make possible the creation of art forms and the best intellectual and spiritual development. We must develop an art sense, a feeling and appreciation for the beautiful in form, proportion, and color, seeking continually to give it expression. We must surround the pupil with or give him easy access to good art in various forms; then aim constantly to train the imagination and the creative power, and to give plenty of free expression. I should commence with the kindergarten to bring æsthetic influences to bear. Kindergartners need, as a rule, more art training. The drawing and modeling of the kindergarten should be freer. The sewing, weaving, and other colored work can be more artistic. Bad combinations of color are often permitted.

Manual training in primary and grammar grades is usually limited to paper folding, cardboard work, knife work with thin wood, sloyd and elementary joining, with perhaps a slight amount of modeling, and with the girls sewing and cooking. There should be more modeling. It should continue from the kindergarten through the high-school course. Here the student has the best possible opportunity for the study and creation of form. The work should not all be from object or copy, but accompanying these exercises there should be regular practice in design. Modeling is one of the most inexpensive forms of manual work, both for material and equipment, and one in which every impress of hand and mind is shown.

Venetian or bent-iron work is another form of manual training which should receive greater attention in grammar grades. With the proper art instruction and study of design as a foundation, much free, beautiful, and artistic work is possible. This work gives excellent training in subtlety of line and curve. Most good will be lost if pupils simply copy designs. They should study good designs, observe, and draw enough of such work to be imbued with its spirit sufficiently to produce their own designs, from which they should work.

The woodwork usually occurring in grammar grades should include, in the last year or two, considerable wood carving. Such work gives opportunity for most artistic production.

In the manual training, high, or special school, or in the scientific or technical school, about half as much time should be given to free-hand drawing and pure art study as to mechanical drawing. The art study should include much sketching and drawing from models, still life, nature, casts, and perhaps some life sketching, imaginative or creative work, composition, color study, design, and modeling. Something of æsthetics or principles of art and of the history of art should be included, and pupils should constantly study good art in the shape of acceptable industrial examples, photographs, and pictures.

Wherever a public art museum is available, as is the case in most of the larger cities and many small ones, there should be intimate relations between the schools and the museum. Pupils should visit regularly for study under the guidance of a teacher, and the museum ought to have collections that could be loaned to the schools and changed from time to time. Reproductions if not originals of good art should hang upon the schoolroom walls.

It would be worth the while of artists of standing to loan some of their work to hang upon the schoolroom wall, or place in cabinets; not alone drawings or paintings, but stained glass, beautiful metal work, carving, pottery, etc.

The art instruction should aim to develop the art sense, an appreciation and love of the beautiful in form and color, a knowledge of the fundamental principles of art and design, an ability to distinguish good work from bad, and a considerable degree of technical skill. It should be related to or be such as to be serviceable in the study of literature, history, and language, as well as in science or shop work. It should make possible shop work of a far higher grade than could be possible without it. It should give a much greater intellectual development. The shop work in many schools should be modified so as to permit more artistic work. The training of a skilled mechanic is an easy matter in comparison with the making of an artistic artisan. In most courses there is sufficient work to train to precision and to the mastery of tools and mechanical processes, but there is too little that trains to a refined, subtle skill, and that exercises creative power. We should aim to send our pupils out producers as far as possible; leaders, not followers; young men and women with ideas and power to express or execute them. As has been intimated, clay modeling should be a more important element, and I believe the potter's wheel could be introduced into the manual training school to good advantage. A beauty and refinement of form would be acquired, a delicacy of touch that wood turning does not give.

With right art training more artistic results are possible in wood turning and inlaying, as well as in wrought-iron work. In wood turning, pupils too frequently work from a drawing or blue print which has been prepared for them instead of from their own designs. Class after class work the same exercises. Such work is dry, uninteresting, and less educational than it should be. The pupil who has designed the piece he is to turn, be it a spindle or vase form, has had the study in proportion and beauty of outline or form that will result in better work. His interest in working out the form he has created is away beyond that of the pupil who works from a blue print or a model.

Wood carving of an artistic kind should occupy a more important place in the manual training course. Much that is done is purely mechanical, crude, uninteresting. It shows a sad lack of art training on the part of the pupil and teacher. Very artistic results are feasible. Of this I am positive, as for a dozen years I had this work under my charge and direction as director of the Columbus Art School. We had classes of boys and girls from the public schools on Saturdays who did most excellent work.

training is in need of enrichment by This will not only give more worthy

To summarize: I should say that manual bringing in more of the æsthetic element. material results, but a greater culture and more valuable training to the pupils.