The following table shows what the city of Berlin alone pays for its industrial schools, exclusive of State aid:

In Chemnitz, Saxony, various trade schools are maintained, partly by the State. They are all under the management of the same board. They are as follows:

The map on the following page is that of Würtemberg, one of the twenty-six states of the German Empire. It shows the distribution of lower industrial schools, and distances and directions whence their pupils come.

Some idea may be formed of the extent and importance of the efforts in behalf of industrial education in Germany when it is stated (by Professor Thurston, of Cornell University) that to educate our people as well as the people of the most favored parts of Europe, as Germany, we should have in this country:

"Twenty technical universities, having in their schools of engineering and higher technics 50 instructors and 500 pupils each.

"Fifty trade schools and colleges, of 20 instructors and 300 students each. "Two thousand technical high schools, or manual-training schools, of 10 instructors and 200 pupils each.

"That is to say, there should be in the United States to-day 1,000 university professors and instructors and 10,000 students under their tuition studying the highest branches of technical work; there should be 1,000 college professors and 15,000 pupils in technical schools studying for superior positions in the arts; and

20,000 teachers engaged in trade and manual-training schools, instructing pupils, 400,000 in number, proposing to become skilled workmen. We have in this country 10,000,000 families, among which are at least 1,000,000 boys who should be in INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS IN THE KINGDOM OF WÜRTEMBERG.

Würtemberg is one of the twenty-six states of the German Empire.

[Dots indicate cities and villages in which industrial schools are located. The radiating lines show distances and directions whence pupils are drawn.]

the latter class of schools. The cost of such education would be, per annum, about 50 cents per inhabitant additional to the present school tax, and in the shops of these schools less than $100 per student, and for total costs of higher education

under $300 per annum per student. Such is the work of which so small a part, at most, can be done by existing colleges, however great the desire of the authorities to carry out the intentions of the people. Such is the somewhat intimidating comparison, also, of the condition of our country and the more enterprising and wisely governed countries of Europe. The latter have had generations the start of us, and only the extraordinary natural advantages of our country and the more extraordinary general intelligence and enterprise of its citizens can possibly prevent this disadvantage under which we labor from telling fatally against us in the course of time, when the inevitable competition of the world shall affect us."

SUPPLEMENTARY SCHOOLS IN BERLIN.

In the foregoing article the purely industrial schools (technical and trade schools) of Berlin are mentioned, and a statistical table of attendance and expenditures is given. In that statement an item called "continuation schools" is worthy of further explanation. Continuation or supplementary schools in Berlin are evening schools, held in common-school buildings. They are not trade schools, but institutions for the further education of boys and girls who have passed through the common elementary school and desire to perfect themselves in one way or another, in order to rise in the social scale and prepare themselves for higher pursuits than common labor. Many of the students of these schools are ambitious and take up secondary-school studies, such as foreign languages, mathematics, and drawing. Hence five secondary schools (so-called City Realschulen) have opened secondary evening schools, in which, besides the mother tongue and arithmetic, the following branches are taught: French, English, bookkeeping, highermathematics, drawing, chemistry, commercial science, and related branches. A small tuition fee is charged. Gratuitous instruction is offered to 10 per cent of the attendants if indigent. The cost of these secondary supplementary schools amounted to 38,587 marks ($9,185) in 1895-96. About 1,000 boys attended these schools in the winter of 1895-96, while in the summer preceding the number was 738.

Much more extensive than these secondary schools, in both their influence and attendance, are the elementary supplementary schools. There are 12 for boys and 13 for girls. In those for boys the studies are: Mother tongue (grammar and composition), arithmetic, drawing, technical drawing, modeling, bookkeeping, geometry, physics and chemistry, French, English, history, civics, and shorthand. The sum total of expenditure for the boys' and girls' schools, borne entirely by the city government, amounted to 276,606 marks ($38,171). No tuition fee is charged. The girls' schools are somewhat more bent upon practical pursuits, as is seen from the following list of studies: Mother tongue, arithmetic, drawing, bookkeeping, embroidery, machine sewing, cutting, ironing, millinery, shorthand, typewriting. French, English, singing, gymnastics. The number of pupils in these girls' schools was 5,000 in 1895-96. All except the common branches are optional studies.

In a governmental report on the Berlin trade and industrial, as well as supplementary, schools, published in Berlin in February, 1897, the entire number of students attending these schools is found to be 14,750, or about 1 per cent of the population. These students repesent 160 different trades or occupations. The joiners (837), locksmiths (1,420), machinists (1,139), machine builders (919), typographers (563), and commercial students (2,549) are the most numerous.

EDUCATION OF APPRENTICES IN CENTRAL EUROPE.

Court Councilor Dr. William Exner and Dr. A. Vetter, of Vienna, recently undertook a journey through Germany and Switzerland in order to study the various modes in which the Governments of these countries encourage the practi

cal training of apprentices. The Government of Austria has been induced by the fierce struggle for existence, in which continental European nations are engaged in the field of industry, to promote skilled labor by extraordinary means, which we in the United States are accustomed to call "paternal influence." Hence this delegation was sent to neighboring states, which are known to be superior to Austria in some fields of industry. These gentlemen reported in the official organ of the Imperial Austrian Technological Museum in Vienna upon the results of their observations. The report contains so many instructive details that it aroused the attention of many who believe that industrial education is a problem worth considering at the present time. Numerous letters of inquiry received in this Bureau concerning the location of certain Gerinan industrial and trade schools and their courses of study make it obvious that an English version of the report of the two Austrian commissioners will interest many citizens in the United States who are apprehensive of the ultimate result of the changed conditions of labor by the introduction of machinery. The following is the report of the two experts:

Dr. P. Scheven said, in his book on Workshops for Apprentices, that it was a problem worthy of our attention how to prevent the training of apprentices by master workmen from falling into disuse after the liberty of trade (Gewerbefreiheit) had been guaranteed by law. This problem has been approached first by three German States, to wit, Würtemberg, Hessia, and Baden. To some extent other German States followed their example, notably Prussia, Bavaria, and also most of the cantons (states) of Switzerland. But only Switzerland has carried out the proposed work of reform in all its details.

It is no wonder that the public affairs of the state are increased by a task which affects the life of the broadest layers of society if we consider that one of the characteristic signs of the time is the rapid extension of the area of state's duties. We now establish institutions with state aid for the solution of social problems, where formerly individuals attempted it with limited means. In the field of education the state began with universities and reached further and further down till at present the master workmen are released from training their apprentices, or, in cases where they still keep apprentices, the master workmen are made organs of the state, i. e., state teachers.

It seems that in the States mentioned above the venerable, ancient institution of training in workshops by masters is reverently fostered, and three other means have proved to be practical and successful. Aside from industrial institutions of purely educational character (found in great number in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland1), we find voluntary, and at times obligatory, examinations for apprentices. Hand in hand with these examinations go exhibitions of apprentice work, test work performed for and during examinations. The government of the Grand Duchy of Baden went still further in its parental care and attempted to promote the professional knowledge of the masters themselves by paying them salaries and requiring them to follow a prescribed course of work in training their apprentices.

The Austrian minister of commerce began in 1892 to promote the small trades (Kleingewerbe), influencing them by granting privileges and material aid, and they have in consequence developed in a most gratifying manner. On principle, the minister limited his influence to such tradesmen as were either masters or journeymen. His aid was partly given in a concrete way by granting motive power for machines and thus changing the drudgery of mechanical labor to machine work, lifting, as it were, the man who had hitherto done all his work by hand to a small manufacturer and widening his horizon of thought as well as his sphere of trade. But, not satisfied with this material aid, he offered the tradesmen opportunities for the extension of technical knowledge, giving them information

1 See page 1215 of this annual report.

concerning modern modes of production found in other countries. This enabled them to vie with foreigners.

This information was offered by means of both printed documents and suitable evening and holiday trade schools. Having had such signal success in these attempts, the minister now entertains the idea of extending the work of his department by influencing the younger generation, the apprentices. Hence he sent the authors of this report, Profs. W. Exner and A. Vetter, to Germany and Switzerland, during the summer of 1896, to investigate what is being done in these two countries toward promoting the practical training of apprentices.

Examinations of apprentices and exhibitions of apprentices' work are found to occur in organic connection in several States visited. In the past they were not always so connected. Some States began with examinations, like Würtemberg, in which kingdom question books for locksmiths (prepared by Mr. Karmarsch, a skilled technologist) were in use as early as 1886. Hessia first began with exhibitions of apprentice work, the first of which dates back to 1848. At present, the apprentice examinations have developed to so high a degree of perfection in Switzerland that the regulations existing there are considered models for imitation. The city of Basle made the beginning in 1877 with 17 candidates. From there the movement spread rapidly, so that in 1887 Switzerland had 27 cities (examination centers) with 1,536 candidates.

These examinations, at first, lacked uniformity and organization, but in 1888 the Swiss Industrial Society, which had been the instigator of the movement, took the matter in hand officially and established a normal course of requirements. Only such candidates as could furnish documentary evidence of having followed the course were admitted to the examinations. The Federal Government granted the society the sum of 2,500 francs to publish the course. This proved to be such an impetus to the annual examinations that the draft of a new industrial code of Zürich in 1895 declared the passing of an examination obligatory for every apprentice in the canton, and made it a duty of the cantonal (State) government to supervise the examinations and bear the costs. Zürich is the leading industrial center in eastern Switzerland. The western part of the Republic did not, at first, take readily to the idea of examining apprentices. Not until 1890 did the cantons of Freiburg and Neuenburg adopt the measure. Geneva and Vaud soon followed the example. Freiburg now (1896) stands at the head of the movement and has adopted the regulation of obligatory apprentice examination. In connection with an exhibition of apprentice work in Geneva (1896) a statistical table was published which showed that during the period from 1877 to 1896 as many as 9,178 apprentices, representing 134 different trades, have been examined in Switzerland.

On an average, about 1,200 candidates are now examined annually. This number will, of course, greatly increase as soon as obligatory examination is adopted in every canton. The expenditures for these examinations amount to about 20 francs ($4) per candidate. The federal and cantonal governments defray onethird, the industrial societies and trade unions and private citizens two-thirds of the cost. In addition to these local examinations, several trade unions arrange their own examinations to meet the requirements of their special professional needs. Thus, for instance, the Swiss printers have had their own examinations for apprentices which date back to the sixties, and it is stated that at least 90 per cent of all typographers in Switzerland entering upon membership after having completed their term of apprenticeship have been rigidly examined. Their number is not included in the total number mentioned above.

The organization of apprentice examinations is the work of the Swiss Industrial Society; this is a corporation which has had an extraordinary influence upon industrial education in Switzerland. Since the Federal Government pays it an annual subsidy, it attends to apprentice examinations as a duty demanded by the State. The far-reaching result of the second exhibition of apprentice work held in