mending to the value of $1,326.50. I have now in stock 675 pairs of shoes of our own make, worth $1,521. Stock and tools purchased during the year to the amount of $2,359.65. Salary paid to employees, $1,500.

I find the machinery which was placed in this department a little over a year ago of great benefit to the boys who are learning this trade. This also enables us to turn out a greater number of shoes and of better quality.

FRIENDFORD INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL, ROXBURY, MASS.

[Statement of E. C. Hunneman, superintendent.]

The school, which is a part of the work of the Ruggles Street Baptist Church, meets each Saturday morning at 10 o'clock for a two hours session. The term opens the last Saturday in October and closes on the first Saturday in May.

The opening exercises each week consist of responsive reading by superintendent and school, singing and repeating the Lord's prayer, after which the several classes are formed and work lasts till noon, when the school is dismissed. The membership of this department is something over 125.

The central idea in the work of the school is educational-intellectually, practically, and morally. In many cases the influence here is the only refinement the child receives aside from the public schools, where the size of the class prevents the personal attention we endeavor to give. If so desired, the work may be carried on outside in a trade.

The boys enter the school of their own desire, but regular attendance and punctuality are required. The line of work is optional-sloyd, carpentry, and woodcarving, machine drawing or free-hand work.

The school was organized and is supported by the Ruggles Street Baptist Church and friends, being in no way dependent on the city for maintenance. No tuition is charged, but each boy pays for the material he uses, having the result as his own property. In the carpentry and wood-carving and sloyd classes each pupil is expected to make something which may be sold for the benefit of the school.

Various classes are as follows: Primary, ages 5 to 8; about 20 pupils. Work suitable for age of pupil, emphasizing drawing. Elementary mechanical, ages 7 to 9; about 12 pupils. Use of ruler and T square and angles taught, with application and drill of each. Preparatory sløyd, ages 9 to 13; about 30 pupils. In this class the pupils draw the models instrumentally to scale, placing dimensions correctly. A clear understanding of the work at hand is given by skillful questioning on the part of the teacher and from use of model, but no copying from finished drawing is allowed. Accuracy and neatness are insisted on as being the fundamental principles of all good working drawings. Sloyd, ages 10 to 16; about 28 pupils. Here the pupil is assigned the model to be made. First, he draws the model (this time working it out for himself, the teacher watching the result step by step), after which he carries his drawing to the shop, where wood is given him, and he makes the model he has drawn. Machine drawing, ages 9 to 13; about 12 pupils. Projection forms the early work of this class, as well as geometry, leading up to the drawing of parts of machinery, learning use, etc., of each part of itself and as related to whole machine. Carpentry and wood carving, ages 10 to 16: about 22 pupils. Use and handling of tools taught. Small articles of furniture, crickets, stands, frames, etc., are made and carved for ornament; and some larger pieces have been made by the boys of this class, as chairs, tables, and bookcases. Free-hand, ages 8 to 15; about 16 pupils. This is the only free-hand class, so the work is fitted to the pupil. Outline drawing from models and objects (singly and in groups), light and shade (charcoal drawing of same, as well as from casts, covers the work.

A year is supposed to be spent in each class, though under favorable circumstances promotions are made from the younger to the next advanced class as deemed expedient.

One of the most gratifying results of the work is the strong interest the children have for the school. They show hearty enjoyment in their classes and are very prond of their work when it is exhibited at the close of the term. A roll of honor is awarded to those perfect in attendance, deportment, and faithful work throughout the year, and a card of honorable mention to those nearly perfect in the same.

As this school is one of the many charities of the church, and there is but one session a week, the drawing-rooms are not reserved for us alone. One large room or hall accommodates the drawing classes. A table on horses is placed between two seats for a class which has 10 pupils.

In the free-had class easels and chairs are provided.

In the basement is the shop given to the sloyd and carpentry and wood-carving classes. Here each student has a bench with tools necessary for his work.

Annual expense of maintenance for boys' department, between $200 and $225. Manual and industrial work trams the child to think more clearly on other studies, and, after thinking clearly, to execute his ideas. It has a moral effect in that it

insists on truth, accuracy, and neatness, and leads to practical use of acquired knowledge in all branches of work. Manual training offsets the mental training a child is constantly receiving, thus making him a well-developed all-round being.

Some boys after leaving school go to work with carpenters or machinists, a few carry on the work toward draftsmanship, and others do not follow the line at all.

FREE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL, WOBURN, MASS.

[Statement of Willis S. Carter, principal.]

Six years ago the Woburn Free Industrial School was started with 12 pupils in woodwork, 25 in the sewing department, and 30 in the cooking department. The school is run during the summer months only, and has been free to everybody until this year, when the age is limited from 10 to 21 years. The school is not a trade school; there is no course of study, but each child takes one or more of the courses as he chooses, and is constantly advancing. Everything is furnished for the pupils. The plant is an old academy building called the Warren Academy. There is a fund connected with the estate, part of the interest being given to support the industrial school. It costs between $800 and $1,000 to run the school one term. Last year we had a total of 400 pupils; this year, 350, the falling off being due to limiting the age. The school, ever since established, has been very successful, the pupils, parents, and general public being interested in the work.

NEW YORK STATE REFORMATORY, ELMIRA, N. Y.

[Statement of Z. R. Brockway, general superintendent.]

The central idea of instruction in the trades school of this reformatory is the preparation of the inmates in skill and disposition to earn legitimately the means of their satisfaction when released. The outlines of instruction in the several trades are prepared for a course of one year. Those who by good conduct and gained confidence of the management are adjudged, after so short a period as one year, to be reasonably well fitted for orderly behavior in free society again are not longer detained to perfect themselves in their trades, but having had a year of experience and training, if they can find employment as advanced apprentices or in any way in connection with the business carried on in society which involves the use of the technical knowledge imparted here even in this brief period, they are generally released. Of course, others who by misconduct or for any reason remain longer than a year get more training than those who are discharged in the shortest time. The organization of the trades classes here embraces instruction in thirty-four trades, the instruction being given at present in the evening-two evenings each week for most of the trades, and three evenings for a few of them. The evening trades school session is of two hours' duration. I may properly add that, since, under the new constitution of the State of New York, productive industries must cease in the prisons and reformatories after the 1st of January next, it is contemplated to bring these trades classes under instruction during some portion of every day, thus adding very greatly to the number of hours of trades instruction the pupils will receive during the period of one year.

The processes of the several trades are subdivided under suitable heads, and there is assigned to each division of the processes of each trade a given number of hours in which that portion of it is to be accomplished, when always an examination occurs; and so, again, at the termination of the arranged course of instruction, a review examination is also had. These examinations determine, to the proper extent of them, the progress of each prisoner toward his release. A pupil failing in his trades school examination for any month has lost that month, having made no progress during it toward the goal of his desired release; this is with opportunities to recover losses, of course. The trades classes are under the special care of a trades school directora graduate of Cornell University, mechanical engineering department-who has a trained assistant also, the remainder of the instruction being given by mechanics resident in the institation or employed to come in from the city adjacent and assisted by advanced pupils from among the prisoners,

The means of support for the institution consist of annual appropriations by the legislature and whatever of incidental earnings the inmates accomplish while pursuing their trades. The amount of earnings last year was $10,000; the appropriation by the legislature $200,000. I repeat, as above stated, that after the 1st of January next there can be no more earnings, since productive employment is prohibited by law.

The age of the pupils for admission here is fixed by law at from 16 to 30 yearsthose convicted of felony, not known to have been previously convicted of a felony. All the inmates are confined under the so-called indeterminate sentence.

The material equipment of the trades classes, aside from the buildings, is a very complete one.

The buildings are within the reformatory inclosure and are a part of the group of buildings which, together with the ground upon which they stand, has necessitat d an investment, roughly stated, of $1,500,000. The average period of detention of inmates is about two years.

Manual training is for other purposes than the practical instruction of the pupils in trades by which they are to earn their living. It is a new departure here, and likely to be very much developed to the extent of the systematic manual training for the purposes intended for say 300 to 500 of the inmates. From the very complete records kept in the institution of the whole previous history and of the physical and mental peculiarities of inmates on admission, it has been practicable to easily select those manifestly defective as indicated by the records kept, and after a time, during which they fail to progress under the ordinary régime of the institution, to with draw them and subject them to the manual-training treatment. This departure was initiated on the 1st of October last. At present there are 100 defectives receiving manual training, not for the purpose of trades instruction, not for the ordinary common school manual training purpose, namely, the facilitating of progress of pupils in the ordinary common-school studies, but rather for the purpose of overcoming by assigned manual exercises, in connection with physical training and the educational work of the school of letters, the peculiar discovered mental defect of each pupil. A general classification or division of the hundred pupils was made at the beginning into three separate groups: First, those apparently ordinarily normal in all respects, except in their inability to accomplish simple arithmet cal processesthose showing a manifest defect in the mathematical faculty of the mind. The second group is composed of those possessing ability enough in every direction except in the matter of moral control of their conduct. Third, the matoids or stupids. In this general classification into three groups the instructor proceeds to assign such manual tasks as are believed to most surely call into play the defective faculties, namely, the arithmetical faculty of the mind, additional inoral control, and with the third division the awakening and quickening of interest and developincut of intellectual power. This latter, I suppose, is substantially the purpose of manual training in the common schools. Not time enough has yet elapsed to enable a summing up of the work attempted to be accomplished or a tabulation and presentation of any results. So much of promise appears upon the surface here in this new educational effort for the defective inmates of the reformatory that it is contemplated to greatly extend it. At a late meeting of the managers authority was conferred to employ additional instructors, and it is believed that for a large number of the inmates, apparently incorrigible under the ordinary régime of the institution, something very valuable may be accomplished by these means, and many of them be rescued and ultimately be rehabilitated. I have no published matter relating to this, but we shall at the close of the fiscal year, Septeinber 30 next, write it up in our report to the legislature.

LYMAN SCHOOL FOR BOYS, WESTBORO, Mass.

[Statement of T. F. Chapin, superintendent.]

We have two shops especially devoted to manual training. The central idea of instruction in each is educational, and the training is obligatory. In one shop the training is the sloyd system, as worked out for public schools by Gustaf Larsson, of Boston. In the other we have wood turning, machinery, benchwork, and forging. About 100 different pupils are instructed in sloyd each year, receiving about 200 hours each; in the other shop about 32 boys, receiving 400 hours shopwork each. The boys are from 13 to 16 years old. Those receiving the iron and wood work combined are, as a rule, 15 or 16, while those receiving the sloyd are, as a rule, not much

over 15.

As far as possible, the instruction is class instruction. In order to provide for the quick boy and the slow boy, the boys are classified somewhat with reference to their rate of working, and also those who do rapid work are permitted to make designs which they work out in their spare moments, thus giving them a kind of busy work. The sloyd shop is equipped with 25 benches; the other shop with 16 forges, 16 benches, and 8 turning lathes. The outlay is principally for tools, and represents, perhaps, $2,500. The cost of maintenance aside from instruction is not far from al a year for material, light, and heat for the sloyd, and $250 for the forge and woodturning shop.

The cost of instruction in sloyd is $900; for iron and wood turning, $1,000. The pupils who take this course are visibly more competent in other lines of work, and they seem to do, on the whole, better in their school work.

In a good many individual cases the pupils instructed in manual training, going out from the school, seem to do better and get better places to work. We have no sufficient data to make a generalization upon in this respect, however.

CHAPTER XXII.

HIGHER AND SECONDARY EDUCATION IN THE UNITED

STATES.

By Dr. GABRIEL COMPAYRÉ,1

HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES.

The following abstracts include the substance of M. Compayre's report on higher education in the United States. They are translations, with little or no condensing of the passages selected. The aim has been to present only M. Compayre's own observations or comments on the character and scope of higher education in this country as it was presented to him for study, principally at the Columbian Exposition at Chicago. So far as possible, therefore, all the details of information which are contained in the reports of the Bureau of Education and the catalogues and programmes of institutions which M. Compayré was obliged to publish and digest as the basis of his observations have been omitted in giving the results of his study, they being besides well known. In the course of his work many reflections occur to this competent observer from studying the influence upon education of the peculiar form of democracy exhibited in this country, which are interesting and valuable— not to say entertaining-not only to those who are interested in the special subjects under investigation (the teaching of metaphysics, for example), but to the general student of social conditions as well.

M. Compayré begins his review with noting the multiplicity of universities in the United States. They abound, he says, in this country. If we have few in France, and if even the projects of reconstruction of our higher education promise us only a small number of them, it may be said that the Americans have too many, at least apparently. With them the word university has lost its high significance. Any institution, however small its pretensions, where Latin and mathematics are taught, does not hesitate to give itself the pompous title of university. This great name has become vulgarized and almost dishonored by the great number and the mediocrity of some of the institutions which have assumed it. There are many pseudo-universities which have nothing, or almost nothing, to do with higher education. In the statistics published in 1889-90 by the Bureau of Education there are no less than 125 universities, and they are of all kinds, including Protestant of all denominations, Catholic, and nonsectarian. Some are open to young men only, while others are for the benefit of both sexes, and some have been founded expressly for negroes (these latter are institutions of an inferior grade, established since the war of secession). Their efficiency also varies from those having more than 200 professors and several thousand students to others having five or six professors and less than a hundred students. Professor Bryce, in his American Commonwealth, speaks of a Western

1 Trandated from his official reports as delegate to the Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893, represeating the Ministry of Public Instruction, France.

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university where the faculty consisted only of the president and his wife. A glance over the list of these 125 or 130 so-called universities is sufficient to show that the distinction between secondary and higher education is not clearly established. A university simply represents a scholastic institution of a somewhat elevated character. To baptize it with the name of university little attention is given to the character of its instruction, whether secondary, technical, agricultural, industrial, or superior, in the sense which we attach to the latter term in Europe. This is so true that some of the real universities, which by the number of their students and the high plane of their studies best merit the name, have preferred to content themselves with their old and more modest name of colleges. It was only in 1887 that the traditionary title of "Yale College" was changed to "Yale University." If we attempt to distinguish in this multitude of nominal universities those which are in reality only small institutions of secondary instruction, comprising the preparatory and collegiate departments, and those which approach more or less to the conditions which we expect of universities in Europe, there still remains a great number of institutions which aspire to give, wholly or in part, what we call in France higher instruction-theology, law, medicine, and high scientific, literary, and philosophical culture-together with technical instruction, in varying proportions, which in France is reserved for special schools.

A first glance at American universities gives an impression of diversity, an indefinite multiplicity of forms, and an absence of a common type. To begin with, there are the universities which have been founded by private individuals, and which are the most powerful and the richest in the country, such as Harvard, Yale, Columbia, and Princeton, which date from the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries; others, like Cornell and Johns Hopkins, of recent date; and still others-Clark University, the University of Chicago, and Leland Stanford University, in California-which were founded only within a very short time. In these institutions, which owe nothing or next to nothing to public assistance, which are independent of the State, which owe their existence to the liberality of private individuals, and are private corporations-some being nonsectarian, while others are under the auspices of a church or a denomination-it is natural that the character of the studies should be influenced by the private initiative, or the original wishes of the founder, or of the body of men who now have their control. In these institutions the instruction must bo adapted to the object for which they were founded, which is evidently not the same in universities free from all religions control and pervaded with a purely scientific spirit, such as Johns Hopkins or Clark, and where, consequently, there is no theological instruction, and in those which are under Methodist or Baptist auspices, as at Boston and Chicago. The studies are selected with a view to local needs and different environments. At Cornell, for example, professional instruction is uppermost, while at Harvard or Yale the old classical training prevails. As means allow and when suitable donations have been made for the purpose, new departments of instruction are organized. In a word, each university has its own constitution, nor is it obliged to follow a single and uniform model, but adapts itself with an admirable facility to its varied circumstances, having its own character and ways and its own distinct originality. Some have the stamp of time upon them, and while endeavoring to regenerate themselves and advance in new ways, must still obey their ancient traditions, while others, founded from day to day, with millions at their command, can, in the full independence of their youth and novelty, make innovations at will and inaugurate bold experiments hitherto untried. Side by side with the institutions of private origin are the State universities (28 in number in 1889-90), which are maintained at the public expense, and which, after the primary and high schools, complete and crown the national system of education. In them, too, a great diversity prevails. They have no fixed rules nor a common programme. In the absence of a central power imposing a uniform system of regulations over the whole country, each State, like each private corporation, acts in its own way, distributes the studies as it pleases, and restricts or enlarges, as it has means, the number of