UNIVERSITY EDUCATION.1

At the close of the session of the "Althing" in 1893 thirty members formed themselves into a committee to inaugurate a national movement contemplating the founding of a university in Iceland. The committee considers that such an institution would be of material benefit to the country and will add greatly to its moral and intellectual culture. A subcommittee has charge of this effort to establish a university and to take up a subscription in Iceland for that purpose. They hope before long to place funds provisionally in the hands of professors of the law school of Iceland whilst awaiting the decision of the King of Denmark that the university may be opened.

1 Revue Internationale de l'Enseignement, 15 Août, 1895.

CHAPTER XXI.

TYPICAL INSTITUTIONS OFFERING MANUAL OR
INDUSTRIAL TRAINING.1

I. CITY PUBLIC SCHOOLS.-Denver, Colo.; Washington, D. C.; Chicago, Ill.; Moline, Ill.; Louisville, Ky.; Portland, Me.; Baltimore, Md.; Boston, Mass.; Brookline, Mass.; Springfield, Mass.; St. Cloud, Minn.; St. Paul, Minn.; Camden, N. J.; Montclair, N. J.; New York, N. Y.; Cleveland, Ohio; Toledo, Ohio; Philadelphia,

Pa.

II. MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOLS.-Throop Polytechnic Institute; Chicago Manual Training School; St. Louis Manual Training School; Hebrew Technical Institate; Technical School of Cincinnati.

III. TRADE SCHOOLS.—California School of Mechanical Arts; Springfield Industrial Institute; Baron de Hirsch Trade School; New York Trade School; Master Builders' Mechanical Trade School; Williamson Free School of Mechanical Trades.

IV. NORMAL SCHOOLS.--Georgia Normal and Industrial College; Teachers' College, New York City; Keystone Stats Normal School; West Chester State Normal School.

V. SCHOOLS FOR DEFECTIVE CLASSES.-American School for the Deaf; Colorado School for the Deaf and Blind; Columbia Institution for the Deaf and Dumb; Illinois Institution for the Education of the Blind; Iowa Institution for FeebleMinded Children; Maryland School for the Deaf; Michigan School for the Deaf; Ohio Institution for Feeble-Minded Youth.

VI. SCHOOLS FOR COLORED PUPILS.-Storr's School; Spelman Seminary; Tougaloo University; Claflin University; Bishop College.

VII. MISCELLANEOUS.-Pratt Institute; Drexel Institute; Spring Garden Institute; Workingman's School; Sloyd Training School; Boston Normal School of Cookery; Girard College; Lasell Seminary; University School, Cleveland; Tyler School, Providence; Carlisle (Pa.) Indian School; Soldiers and Sailors' Orphans' Home, Xenia, Ohio; Friendford Industrial School; Free Industrial School, Worcester; New York State Reformatory; Lyman School for Boys.

The report of this Office for 1893-94 contained a series of tables showing, as fully as possible, the extent of the introduction of hand training in institutions of all grades in the United States, the intention being to include all organized instruction having in view preparation for industrial pursuits requiring training of the hand. This chapter is intended to supplement those tables by showing the purposes and character of the instruction-matters which are not susceptible of statistical presentation.

It is impossible to represent every institution in such a compilation, but it has been intended to set forth as far as possible the aims and methods of typical institutions in sufficient numbers to show all the phases of industrial education in this country in institutions below the collegiate grade.

In seeking the data required, a circular letter was addressed to all institutions concerned, in which information was asked upon the following points:

(1) The central idea in such instruction: Whether it is educational only, preparatory to higher technical study, or with a direct view to actual work or a trade; extent to which manual (or industrial) training is obligatory.

(2) Organization: Connection with public schools or other institutions; means of support; amount charged for tuition.

Compiled and edited by James C. Boykin.

* Pages 2093 to 2169, inclusive.

ED 96

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1001

(3) Course of study: In what year of school the varions branches are taught; number and approximate age of pupils to whom the several kinds of instruction are given; methods of instruction; unique features of your work.

(4) Material equipment: Description and plans of buildings; equipment of shops; tools provided for pupils.

(5) Cost: Value of plant; annual expense of maintenance.

(6) Results: Effects of manual (or industrial) training upon other studies, and upon the length of school life; occupations of former pupils after leaving school. All the facts presented on the following pages were, with a few exceptions, obtained in this way. Where quotations have been made from catalogues or printed reports, those documents were furnished in lieu of or to supplement specially prepared statements. Plans of buildings and arrangement of shops were discussed in the paper of Dr. C. M. Woodward, on The Rise and Progress of Manual Training, which was published in the report of this Office for 1893-94, pages 877-919. But little space, therefore, is given to those phases of the subject in the following compilation.

I.-CITY PUBLIC SCHOOLS.

MANUAL TRAINING HIGH SCHool, Denver, Colo.

[From the catalogue of 1896.]

The purpose of this school is to furnish a liberal elementary education, suitable not only for those who contemplate a higher education later, but especially for those pupils who upon leaving school must enter at once upon the active duties of life. The course of study gives ample preparation to meet the requirements for entrance to colleges and technical schools, except to college departments requiring prepara

tion in Greek.

The purpose of manual training is just as truly educational as is that of purely mental training. As a part of public school work it must therefore be broad and liberal in its scope and universal in its applications.

The shop exercises are carefully planned to embody many constructive principles, and to bring into use, one after another, all of the more common and typical tools of modern handicraft.

The articles made in the shops are not offered for sale, and indeed seldom have any intrinsic value, save as illustrations of certain forms and principles.

Since the whole object of this training is educational in character, the student, as soon as he has mastered the principle or process involved in a certain exercise, is set to work upon another. Mere mechanical dexterity is regarded as of secondary importance; thorough mastery of principles, comprehension of the logical steps of the process, together with intelligent execution of the same is all that we demand. Further repetition would doubtless result in greater mechanical dexterity, but as an educational process it would be lacking in mental training. Movements that have become automatic, that is, which no longer require the active supervision of the mind, can not be regarded as highly educational in character. When this point is reached, therefore, it is time for the student to drop that particular exercise and turn to something else.

Notice that we said, "intelligent" execution of the exercise is demanded. This is the key to the whole plan. Students must know how to do certain things, and also why certain processes are employed. They do not blindly copy a piece of work, but trace the logical steps of a process to its legitimate result.

This kind of training can not fail to make thoughtful, intelligent workers; and who will deny that we need more of these in the world?

It is unreasonable to expect that all of our graduates will become mechanics. Some of them doubtless will, and we confidently expect a good account of them. Others will find that their natural abilities lead them in other directions, and they will turn aside into business channels, or push onward through the higher technical school or college toward the professions, such as the law, medicine, engineering, and the various occupations requiring extended scientific training. It is predicted with entire confidence, however, that each and every student will be benefited and strengthened by his manual training work. He will go forth into the world with a mental training, the vigor and practical worth of which could not have been obtained in any other way than by personal contact with tools and materials.

It will be observed that while no specific trades are taught, we do teach the underlying mechanical principles of a great many trades; and that the possible economic applications of these acquired principles is almost limitless in number.

Each pupil will be helped by his school work to discover his natural capabilities and aptitudes, and to make an intelligent choice of occupation.

Visitors to the school sometimes carry away a false impression of its character, because the manual training departments from their novelty attract an undue amount

of their attention. It must be borne in mind that manual training work, although important, is not intended to supersede legitimate literary work. It will be found mp on investigation that the academic work required of pupils in this school is superir in character. An outline of each year's work will be found herein.

It will also be found that the manual training high school is no asylum for lazy boys and girls; on the contrary, they will be as sadly out of place here as in any other place where activity and industry is demanded.

1 Le object of manual training, as introduced into the public schools, is to develop the faculties through the education of the hand and eye; to familiarize the pupil with tools, materials, and processes, to cultivate habits of thoughtful, intelligent, and accurate work, and thus to bring into close relationship, knowing and doing.

COURSE OF STUDY.

Nore.—The figures after the studies indicate the number of school hours per week devoted to that sbject.

First year.-Mathematics (5): Algebra and plane geometry. Science (4): Physical geography until January; botany. History and English (3): American literature and rhetoric until January; Greek history. Language (4): Latin or German. Drawing 4): Free-hand (2); mechanical (2). Manual work (10): For boys-Joinery, 16 weeks; wood turning, 12 weeks; wood carving, 10 weeks. For girls-Plain sewing; joinery on alternate days from January to June. Music (1): Chorus singing. Physical culture.

Second year.-Mathematics (4): Algebra; plane and solid geometry. Science (5): Physics with laboratory practice. History and English (3): Roman history until January; rhetoric; English and American literature. Language (4): English or German. Drawing (4) Free-band (2); mechanical (2). Manual work (10): For boys--Pattern making and molding, 20 weeks; forging, 18 weeks; lessons in brazing and soldering. For girls-Drafting patterns; cutting and fitting undergarments; machine sewing; wood carving on alternate days from January to June. Music (1): Chorus singing. Physical culture.

Third year.-Mathematics (4): Algebra; plano trigonometry; bookkeeping. Science (7): Chemistry with laboratory practice (5); steam electricity and magnetism (2). History and English (5): English history; English literature; civil government. Language (4): English or German; French. Drawing (4): Free-hand 2; mechanical (2). Manual work for boys: Vise work; machine tool work; construction. For girls: Cooking: household science. The manual work of this year oeapies 8 hours per week for 16 weeks, and 6 hours per week for 22 weeks. Music (1): Chorus singing. Physical culture.

Fourth year.-Mathematics (4): Spherical trigonometry; surveying; bookkeeping. Science (5): Advanced chemistry (5), or advanced physics (5). Manual work (8): For boys-Machine tool work and construction. For girls-Cooking; household science. Or the pupil may elect advanced work in any of the lines of shopwork already pursued. History (4): One-half year. Study of some period of American history; political economy. Psychology (4): One-half year. Language (5): French, or German, or English. Drawing (2 to 10): Free-hand; mechanical; modeling. Music (1): Chorus singing. Physical culture.

From the above, with the approval of the principal, the student chooses 30 hours' work per week, at least 13 of which must be chosen from the following lines of work: Mathematics, science, history, language. The manual work is required of all students.

DRAWING.

The drawing work of the school may be classified under three heads: Constructive, representative, and decorative work. The time is divided equally between free-hand and mechanical work, the two being carried along side by side throughout the entire

conrse.

The equipment of the drawing rooms includes a good assortment of models, casts, and studies.

Constructive drawing: Includes all drawing relating to the facts of form, such as free-hand and mechanical working drawings, geometric problems, surface developments, projections, intersection of solids, and drawings relating to machine and building construction.

Representative drawing: Drawings dealing with the appearance of form, such as drawing from cast and object with charcoal, pencil, and pen and ink. Perspective problems.

With the approval of the principal, shopwork may be substituted for this work.
Three for the first four months. One of the five periods is for unprepared work.
"French may be substituted for mathematics in the third year.

Decorative drawing: Includes work relating to the decoration of form, viz, elementary design, historic ornament, decorative design in color.

First year.-Free-hand: Working drawings of solids; elementary perspective in outline; water coloring in flat washes; charcoal and pencil drawings from object and cast; historic ornament and design.

Mechanical: Instruction in use of drawing tools; working drawings to a scale; sections, elevations, and details of machines and parts of machinery; geometric construction; problems in orthographic projection; development of surfaces; isometric projection; lettering and borders.

Second year.-Free-hand: Elementary perspective in light and shade from object with charcoal, pencil, pen and ink; water color shading; sketches of machinery; historic ornament and design, conventional forms, designs for ornamental ironwork. Mechanical: Isometric projection; intersection of solids and development of surfaces; architectural working drawings; elementary perspective; projection of shadows; machine drawing; lettering and borders.

Third year.-Free-hand: Drawing from cast in charcoal and pencil; decorative art work; pen sketching and shading; perspective; designing.

Mechanical: Machine design and construction; perspective; shades and shadows; geometric problems. A finished drawing with full details, embodying all that the pupil has learned in drawing.

CLAY MODELING.

This work is done the first half of the second year, and consists of modeling from casts, plant forms, carvings, and designs.

It is intended to give the pupils along with this work a knowledge of the modeling of the various styles of relief decoration, such as the Greek, Roman, Romanesque, and Renaissance. Also in modeling from plant forms to teach the pupil to see broadly, and while getting the character of the leaf or flower, to eliminate the nonessentials and those features impossible of reproduction in plastic form.

MANUAL WORK.

In disciplinary value, the manual work rises to the dignity of laboratory work, and holds equal rank with the regular academic studies. It embodies a training in habits of careful, patient, systematic, intelligent labor.

The pupil is made to feel from the beginning the necessity for planning his work with the utmost care and exactness, in order to secure accurate results. All exercises made in the shop must agree precisely in form and dimensions with the drawing, usually in the form of a blue print, with which each pupil is provided.

Each exercise is carefully planned to embody some definite mechanical principle, and to bring into use, one after another, the various shop tools. The shop teacher explains the construction and use of each tool as it is needed and gives directions for its care. Then in the presence of the class he shows exactly how to perform the work, and also occasionally by way of a caution, "How not to do it."

Economy of time, labor, and material is taught and enforced by careful supervision. Special attention is given to the formation of habits of neatness and order, and to the employment of workmanlike methods.

For boys the work is as follows:

First year.-Joinery, turning, carving: In the joinery course only hand tools are employed. The object of the course being to give practice in the use of the principal woodworking tools and teach the elementary principles of construction.

The course in wood carving affords instruction in the use of the principal woodcarving tools, and a further training in appreciation of beauty of form in design. After the work at the bench, wood turning is taught. No kind of shopwork is more fascinating to the student, or presents a greater opportunity for developing an appreciation for grace, symmetry, and beauty in form.

Throughout the year frequent talks are given by the instructor upon such topics as these: Distribution of forests; processes of lumbering; the principal varieties of wood and their leading uses; physical properties of wood; its behavior under various conditions; its proper distribution in construction; preservation of timber, etc. Second year.-Pattern making, molding, forging: Some foundry work precedes the pattern making, in order that the student may better understand the construction of patterns.

The course in pattern making will consist in plain work; pulley, pipe, gear, and core work. In the foundry the students are taught to make molds and cores, each student pouring for himself into the molds that he has made.

Forging: Exercises in drawing, upsetting, shaping, bending, welding, punching and cutting, hardening and tempering of steel.

During the course each student forges and tempers a set of steel lathe tools, to be used in the shopwork of the following year.

1