"They are usually divided into four kinds, viz., into diacesan, provincial, national, and general.

"A Diocesan is that which the Bishop celebrates with the clergy of his own diocese.

"A Provincial is that which is celebrated by the Bishops of some ecclesiastical province, their Archbishop or Metropolitan being president.

"That is called National to which the Archbishops and Bishops of a single kingdom or nation are convoked, the Patriarch or Primate of that nation presiding.

"A General council is that to which the Bishops of the whole world are assembled, and over which the Pope himself presides, either in his own person or by his legates: it is called also universal, œcumenical, and also plenary.

66

Among the ancients a national council is sometimes also called plenary and universal; because it is such as to the kingdom and nation, although it is not absolutely such."

In order to a general council it is not necessary that all the Bishops should, without exception, be present. Sometimes a National is more numerous than a General council. Thus at the first Constantinopolitan council there were not more than 150 Bishops present; whereas the National Carthaginian Synod, at which St. Augustine was present, consisted of 217 Bishops.

It is sufficient that it be lawfully assembled out of the whole Christian world.

By right, Bishops alone should be called to a General Council, and they are present by divine right as ordinary judges, who, therefore, alone have by right a decisive vote. This is proved from the fact that Christ entrusted to them the government of the church, according to Acts xx. 28: 'Take heed to yourselves and to all the flock over which the Holy Ghost hath placed you Bishops, to rule the Church of God.'

"Therefore Bishops in councils are as judges, and not only as counsellors of the Pope, and therefore they are accustomed to use these words, We decree, we resolve,' &c., and as decreeing they subscribe the council: hence also the things defined in councils are not wont to be called decrees of the Pope but of the council.

66

Observe, however, that the Supreme Pontiff is not obliged

to follow the greater part of the Bishops in delivering his opinion, for although the Bishops are true judges, yet the supreme judgment has been committed by Christ to his vicar upon earth, and has been entrusted to him that he may confirm and direct his brethren: and thus a king is not obliged to follow the greater part of the judges.

"Observe, that by privilege, Cardinals who are not Bishops, and certain Abbots, and the Chiefs of Regular Orders, may be present at councils as judges, and have a decisive vote," &c.

From No. 87 we learn that it is the Pope's right to convoke a general council, to continue and dissolve it, and to preside over it, and approve its proceedings. Whenever Emperors presided at Oriental councils, their presidency was not authoritative but honorary: they were there merely as favourers, defenders, and witnesses of those things which were done. When they subscribed the decrees of councils, they did it not as decreeing, but as consenting, as witnesses, and as obeying.

"It also belongs to the Supreme Pontiff to approve general councils as such, when he is not personally present at them so that without his approbation, they cannot have the authority of a general council: and therefore we find it recorded that general councils, and the Council of Trent itself so earnestly sought confirmation from the Apostolic See.

"If the Pope presides by legates, then, if the legates have instructions from the Pope, concerning questions to be settled, and follow them according to the rule in decreeing with the council, then this council appears to be firm and infalli ble before the Pope's confirmation; however then, there is in so far need of confirmation, that there may be no dispute concerning the legitimacy of the council, and the consent and approbation of the Supreme Pontiff; but if the legates either have no instruction, or do not follow it, then whatever the council defines is not of infallible authority before the pontifical confirmation.

"Hence arises another division of councils, by which some are called approved, others reprobated or rejected, some partly approved, partly rejected; others neither approved nor reprobated."

Concerning approved General Councils. (88.)

"The approved general councils from the time of the apostles number eighteen.

"The first is the First Nicene Council, celebrated in the year 325, under St. Sylvester, at which 318 Fathers were present, in which it was definitely settled against Arius and his followers, denying the divinity of the Son, that in divine things, the Son is consubstantial with the Father, &c.

"The Sardicensian council under Julius I., which is usually considered as an appendix of the Nicene council, followed in confirmation of this Synod in the year 347, &c.

"The second is the First Constantinopolitan, in the year 381, assembled under St. Damasus, at which 150 Bishops were present. Gregory Nazianzen, the Prefect of the Constantinopolitan Church, presided partly, and partly also Nectarius, Gregory's successor, in the Constantinopolitan See. In this, the Nicene faith was confirmed, and the heresy of Macedonius who denied the divinity of the Holy Spirit was condemned; and hence to the Nicene Symbol those things were added in this council, which pertain to the divinity of the Holy Spirit.

"The third is the Ephesian, in the year 431, held under S. Cælestinus, in which more than 200 Bishops were numbered; and Nestorius, the Constantinopolitan Bishop, was condemned, asserting two persons in Christ, a divine and a human, and consequently denying that the divine Virgin is the mother of God.

"The fourth is the Chalcedonian, of 630 Bishops, and convened A. D. 451, under St. Leon, in which Eutyches was condemned, teaching that there was only one nature in Christ combined from a divine and human nature.

66

"The fifth is the Second Constantinopolitan, A. D. 553, under Vigilius, celebrated by 255 Bishops, in which the Nestorian and Eutychian heresies were again condemned with three renowned chapters, and the errors of Origen rejected.

"The sixth is the Third Constantinopolitan, under St. Agatho, of 299 Bishops, begun A. D. 680; in this the heresy of the Monothelites was condemned, professing that

there was but one will and operation in Christ, and thus restoring the heresy of Eutyches.

"The seventh is the Second Nicene, of 350 Bishops, A. D. 787, under Adrian I., celebrated against the Iconomachists, or Iconoclasts, i. e., the assailers of the images of Christ and the Saints.

"The eighth is the Fourth Constantinopolitan, A. D. 869, held under Adrian II., at which 383 Bishops assembled: in this their own honour and worship was restored to the sacred images, and Photius, a most crafty man, and who had intruded himself into the patriarchate of Constantinople, was deposed; by his persuasion and influence the Greeks began to assail the primacy of the Supreme Pontiff, and to follow the Latins with deadly hatred, turning many things into accusation against them, and particularly that they taught that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and from the Son, and that they had added the words and from the Son' to the Constantinopolitan creed; and hence that foul schism of the Greeks took its origin.

"No general councils were afterwards held in the East: the others were celebrated in the West.

“The ninth general council is the First Lateran, A. D. 1123, celebrated under Calixtus II., in order to obviate a grievous dissension between the popes and emperors concerning the right of investiture, which concerned the institutions of the bishops, chief priests, and those who held benefices this right the emperors arrogated to themselves; but the popes wished this to be reserved to the church. In the same council, provision was made for affording supplies to the holy land and Spain against the Saracens. There were

present more than 300 bishops.

"The tenth is the Second Lateran, A. D. 1139, held under Innocent II., by about 1000 bishops, on the occasion of the schism of Peter Leo, the anti-pope, also against the errors of Peter de Bruis, and Arnold of Brixia, and for the restoration of discipline. But this Peter and Arnold were in error concerning the real presence of Christ in the eucharist, and taught that temples and crosses were to be destroyed, and that the dead were not helped by prayers.

"The eleventh is the Third Lateran, A. D. 1179, celebrated under Alexander III., by 300 bishops, against the

Schismatics ordained by Victor IV., the anti-pope, also, against the Waldenses, who taught that the Supreme Pontiff was not to be obeyed, that swearing was unlawful, that all were priests, that robbers should not be put to death, &c.

"The twelfth is the Fourth Lateran, celebrated in the year 1215, under Innocent III., against the Abbot Joachim, Almaric of Bena, and the Albigenses, who renewed the errors of the Manichæans. There were present 412 bishops, and upwards of 800 abbots and priors, numerous procurators of the absent, and legates of a great many princes, ' for which reason it is usually called the great Lateran Council.

"The thirteenth is the First Council of Lyons, of 140 bishops, in the year 1245, assembled under Innocent IV., against the emperor Frederic, who ruled tyrannically, and who also was deposed. Various measures also concerning the reformation of morals were passed.

"The fourteenth is the Second Council of Lyons, A. D. 1274, held under Gregory X., for the recovery of the holy land, and that the Greeks might be called back to the faith and communion of the Roman Church: peace was agreed upon by the Latins with the Greeks; but was not long kept by the latter.

1

"The fifteenth is the Viennensian in France, A. D. 1311, under Clement V., of about 300 bishops, against the errors of the Beguardians, and Beguinians, and Fratrieuli, who taught that man in this life may attain to the highest perfection, so that he may become impeccable, and not be able to advance any farther; and, that, therefore, he should then neither pray nor fast, nor be subjected to any laws. In it, it was also settled that the rational or intellectual soul, is in itself and essentially the form of the human body: the order of the Templars also was abolished.

"The Council of Constance followed in the year 1414, in order to abolish a schism which had long troubled the church, several claiming to be Pope; also against the errors of Wicklif and John Huss, who taught that all things hap pen by fatality, that the church consists of the predestinated only, that no one is Lord, Prelate, or Bishop, while he is in mortal sin, &c. It was dissolved under Martin V., elected in this same council. The French reckon this council among