This is for opening the valve which admits steam to the cylinders. 15. Sector by which the throttle-lever is held in any desired position. 16. Lazy-cock" handle. A valve which regulates the water supply to the pumps is worked by this handle. 17, 17. Reverse lever. 18, Reverse-lever sector. 19, 19, 19, Gauge. cocks for showing the height of the water in the boiler; 19' is a pipe for carrying away the water which escapes when the gauge-cocks are opened. 20, 20. Oil cups for oiling the cylinders.* 21. Handle for working steamvalve of injector. 22. Handle for controlling water-jet of the injector. 23. Handle for working water-valve of injector. 24. Oil can shelf. 25. Handle for air-brake valve. 26. Valve for controlling air-brake. 27. Pipe for conducting air to brakes under the cars. 28. Pipe connected with air reservoir. 29. Pipe connection to air pump. 30. Handle for working a valve which admits or shuts off the air for drivingwheel brakes. 31. Valve for driving-wheel brakes. 32, 32'. Lever for moving a diaphragm in smoke-box, by which the draught is regulated. 33. Handle for raising or lowering snow scrapers in front of truck wheels. 34. Handle for opening cock on pump to show whether it is forcing water into the boiler. 35. Lamp to light the water-gauge, 51, 51. 36. Air-hole for admitting air to fire-box. 37. Tallow can for oiling cylinders. 38. Oil can. 39. Shelf for warming oil cans. 40. Furnace door. 41. Chain for opening and closing the furnace door. 42. Handles for opening dampers on the ash-pan. 43. Lubricator for air-pump. 44. Valve for admitting steam to the chimney to blow the fire when the engine is standing still. 45. Valve for admitting steam to the train pipes for warming the cars. 46. Valve for reducing the pressure of the steam used for heating cars. 47. Cock which admits steam to the pressure-gauge, 48. 48. Pressure-gauge which indicates the steam pressure in heater pipes. 49. Pipe for conducting steam to the train to heat the cars. 50. Cock for watergauge, 51. 51, 51. Glass water-gauge to indicate the height of water in the boiler. 52. Cock for blowing off impurities from the surface of the water in the boiler. Besides being impressive as a triumph of human ingenuity, there is much about the construction and working of locomotives which is picturesque. A shop where they are constructed or repaired is always of interest. An engine-house at night is full of weird suggestions and food for the imagination. On page 196 is an illustration from a photograph taken in the erecting shops of the Baldwin Locomotive Works in Philadelphia; and on page 193 is a view of a similar shop of the Pennsylvania Railroad at Altoona, which suggests at This engine had two different appliances for oiling the cylinders, the pair of oil cups, 20, 20, and the automatic oiler, 9. a glance many of the processes of construction which go on in these great works. At Altoona are immense travelling cranes resting on brick arches and spanning the shop from side to side. These are powerful enough to take hold of the largest locomotive and lift it bodily from the rails and transfer it laterally or longitudinally at will. On page 193 a large consolidation engine is shown, swung clear of the rails, and in the act of being moved laterally. The hooks of the crane are attached to heavy iron beams, from which the locomotive is suspended by strong bars. On page 189 is a view in the blacksmith's shop of the Baldwin Works, showing a steam hammer and the operation of forging a locomotive frame. It is quite natural that the engineers, or "runners," as they generally call themselves, who have the care of locomotives should take a deep interest and acquire a sort of attachment for them. In the earlier days of railroading this was much more the case than it is now. Then each locomotive had an individuality of its own. It was rare that two engines were exactly alike. Nearly always there was some difference in their proportions, or one engine had some device in it which the other had not. Now, many locomotives are made exactly alike, or as nearly so as the most improved machinery will permit. There is nothing to distinguish the one from the other. Therefore Bony Smith can claim no superiority for his machine which Windy Brown has not the advantage of. In the old days, too, each engine had its own runner and fireman, and it seldom fell into the hands of any one else, and those in charge of it took as much pride in keeping it bright as the character in Pinafore did "in polishing up the handle of the big front door." On many roads-particularly the larger ones-engines are not assigned to special men. The system of "first in first out" has been adopted, that is, the engines are sent out in the order in which they come in, and the men take whichever machine happens to fall to their lot. This naturally results in a loss of personal attachment to special engines. Every change in the construction, ing of locomotives, but generally have a contempt for things which have no practical bearing. They demand "lucidity" in what they read with as much vehemence as Matthew Arnold did, and some editors and college professors, whose writing and thinking is foggy, would be greatly benefited by the criticisms of the Locomotive Brotherhood. Much might be written about the duties of locomotive runners and firemen, and the qualifications required. It is the general opinion of locomotive superintendents that it is not essential that the men who run locomotives should be good mechanics. The best runners or engineers are those who have been trained while young as firemen on locomotives. Brunel, the distinguished civil engineer, said that he never would trust himself to run a locomotive because he was sure to think of some problem relating to his profession which would distract his attention from the engine. It is probably a similar reason which unfits good mechanics for being good locomotive runners. It will perhaps interest some readers to know how much fuel a locomotive burns. This of course depends upon the quality of fuel, work done, speed, and character of the road. On freight trains an average consumption may be taken at about 1 to 1 pound of coal consumed per car per mile. With passenger trains, the cars of which are heavier and the speed higher, the coal consumption is greater. A freight train of 30 cars, at a speed of 30 miles per hour, would therefore burn from 900 to 1,350 pounds of coal per hour. Peter Parley's illustration of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad is a representation of one of the earliest passenger-cars used in this country. The accuracy of the illustration may, however, be questioned. Probably the artist depended upon his imagination and memory somewhat when he drew it. The engraving at the top of page 197 is from an original drawing made by the resident engineer of the Mohawk & Hudson Railroad, and from which six coaches were made by James Goold for the Mohawk & Hudson Railroad in 1831, and is an authentic repre A Typical American Passenger Locomotive. wheels, as B [p. 197]. The next step in the development of cars was that of joining together several coach-bodies. This form was continued after the doubletruck system was adopted, as shown by A [p. 197], which represents an early Baltimore & Ohio Railroad car, having three sections united. It was soon displaced by the rectangular body, as shown in C [p. 198], which is a reproduction from an old print. Fig. F [p. 198] is an illustration of a car used for the transportation of flour on the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, while horses were still used as the motive power. To show how nearly all progress is a process of evolution, it was shown in one of the trials of the validity of Winans's patent on eight-wheeled cars with two trucks, that, before the date of his patent, it was a practice to load fire-wood by connecting two such cars with long timbers, which rested on bolsters attached by king-bolts to the cars. The wood was loaded on top of these timbers, as shown in D [p. 198]. An old car E [p. defendants in that suit. Although Winans was not able to establish the validity of his patent on eight-wheeled cars with two trucks, he was undoubtedly one of the first to put it into practical form, and did a great deal to introduce the system. The progress in the construction of cars has been fully as great as in that of locomotives. If the old stage-coach bodies on wheels are compared with a vestibule train of to-day the difference will be very striking. Most of us who are no longer young can recall the days when sleeping-cars were unknown, when a journey from an eastern city to Chicago meant 48 hours or more of sitting erect in a car with thirty or more passengers, and an atmosphere which was foetid. Happily those days are past, although the improvement in the ventilation of cars has been very slow, and is still very imperfect. Any one who will stand close to a line of railroad when a train is rushing by at a speed of forty to sixty miles an hour must wonder how the engine and cars are kept on the track, and even those familiar with the construction of railroad machinery often express astonishment that the flanges of the wheels, which are merely projecting ribs about 1 in. deep and 14 in. thick, are sufficient to resist the impetus and swaying of a locomotive or car at full speed. The problem of the manufacture of wheels which will resist this wear and not break, has occupied a great deal of the attention of railroad managers and manufacturers. Locomotive driving-wheels in this country are always made of cast-iron, with steel tires, which are heated and put on the wheels and then cooled. The tires are thus contracted and "shrunk" on the wheels. The tread, that is the surface which bears on the rail, and the flange of the tire are then turned off in a lathe made especially for the purpose, shown in the above picture. For enginetrucks, tenders, and cars, until within a few years, "chilled" cast-iron wheels have been used almost exclusively on American railroads. The tread and flange of a cast-iron wheel, if made without being "chilled," would soon be worn out in service, as such iron has ordinarily little capacity for resisting the wear to which wheels are subjected. Some cast-iron, however, has a singular property which causes it to assume a peculiar crystalline form if, when it is melted, it is allowed to cool and solidify in contact with a cold iron mould. The iron which is thus cooled quickly, or "chilled," becomes very hard, and resists wear very much better than iron which is not chilled. The superior quality of certain kinds of cast-iron which seem to be found only in this country, and the cheapness of wheels made of it, has led to their general use here. In Europe, wheels are made of wrought-iron, with tires which were also made of the same material before the discovery of the improved processes of manufacturing steel, but since then they have been made of the latter ma |