cisely as our illustrative blind man, had he to have advanced the opinion that the Earth stepped to the right or to the left of his actual and other planets revolve round the Sun. path, would have been visited by other rain- Whether he did so or not, it is certain that this drops than those which actually fell upon him, was taught by Aristarchus about 280 B. C.; as, so we may reasonably conclude that if our also, that the distance of the Sun from the earth's orbit were changed so that she traveled Earth is insignificant in comparison with that a few millions of miles further from or nearer of the stars. Among other famous Greek to the sun than she actually does, then she astronomers were Eratosthenes, who devised an would encounter meteor-systems altogether dif- accurate method of measuring the circumference ferent from those which now assail her with a of the Earth, and Hipparchus, who made a shower of "pocket-planets" To come to the catalogue of all the stars visible above his horizon. point for which I have been making all along,the whole of the solar domain is alive with meteors.

EARLY HISTORY OF ASTRONOMY.

who flourished in the second century after Ptolemy, an eminent Egyptian astronomer Christ, rejected the theory of Pythagoras and Aristarchus respecting the solar system, and advanced one of his own, which soon met with The first astronomers were the ancient shep- general acceptance. He taught that the Earth herds, who, as they tended their flocks beneath was the centre of a system of eight immense the canopy of heaven, naturally became inter- hollow spheres of crystal, placed one within ested in the orbs with which it was studded, another that the Moon was in the nearest observed their motions, and gave names to those sphere; Mercury in the next;. Venus in the that were most conspicuous. They knew, how- third; the Sun in the fourth; Mars, Jupiter, ever, only such isolated facts as were apparent and Saturn, in the fifth, sixth, and seventh, reto the eye; it was reserved for later ages to spectively; and that the eighth belonged to the trace visible effects to their causes, and to build stars, which, though most distant, were still up theories; and not till the improved instruments of comparatively recent times extended the field of human vision almost beyond belief, was it possible to penetrate the mysteries of the science to their depths.

visible through the transparent crystal. The revolution of this cumbrous system round the Earth from east to west, once in twenty-four hours, he thought would account for the succession of day and night, and the various phenomena of the heavens.

The Chaldeans and Egyptians were the first to make any material progress in Astronomy. During the Dark Ages, Astronomy was cultiThe former, by coutinued observation, discov-vated chiefly by the Arabians, who made no ered that the eclipses of the Moon recur in the advance as regards theory, but were diligent obsame order in periods of 18 years, and were servers, and devised some improvements in inthus able to predict them with considerable struments and methods of calculation. Even after the termination of this period, comparaaccuracy; the latter investigated the motions of tively little progress was made until the time of the planets, and established a sacred year of Copernicus, a German priest, about 350 years 365 days. He ventured to reject the system of ago. Ptolemy, which then generally prevailed; and, reviving the teachings of Pythagoras and Aristarchus, set forth what is called from him the Copernican system, now very generally received as true, though at first bitterly denounced as visionary and even irreligious. Its three fundamental points are, that the Earth is round; that it turns on its axis from west to east; and that the Earth and other planets revolve round the

The Chinese, also, paid great attention to this science in very early times. More than 2,300 years before the Christian era (according to their own records), a tribunal was established for the prosecution of astronomical studies, and - particularly for the prediction of eclipses. Its members were held responsible with their lives for the correctness of their calculations; and we are told that one of the emperors actually put to death his two chief astronomers for failing to predict an eclipse of the Sun.

Sun.

After Copernicus came the great Italian From Egypt, the cradle of learning, art, and philosopher Galileo, who first used the telescope, science, the Greeks obtained their first knowl- and was thus enabled to make many important edge of astronomy, to which their wise men discoveries, all tending to support the theory of made important additions. Thales, about 600 Copernicus. The day on which Galileo died B. C., taught that the world was round, and that was memorable for the birth of Newton, whose the Moon shone with reflected light. His pupil great discovery of the law of gravitation exAnaximander conceived the bold idea of a plained the planetary motions, while his matheplurality of worlds-that is, that the planets matical researches gave a new impetus to the are inhabited. A little later, Pythagoras is said science.

Religion and Morals.

SOME STRANGE SUPERSTITIONS.

lage home in Provence by the superstitious Catharine de' Medici and her son Charles IX., he became the object of faith for the European nations. His doggerel quatrains, full of unknown names and hybrid words, were so skillfully executed that the diligent seeker could apply them more or less happily to most historical events, and showed how easy it is after the blow is struck, to rest it on a prediction.

And over all the middle ages, we see the weird figure of a man downcast and grave, who, unhasting, unresting, must march on to the day of doom. The Wandering Jew, sometimes UPERSTITION and religion are in buried in Armenian convents or the deserts of some sort twin-sisters-equally cher- Central Asia, in the burning plains of Africa, ished and honored in times of pious or the snowy heights of the Caucasus, suddenly and ignorant fervor. Though the appears in the haunts of more civilized Europe, line of demarcation between them and tells, as an eye-witness, the sad story of the seems now so clearly defined, they have been crucifixion, and his share in the contumely cast often confounded, not only in the ideas of the upon the God-man. He had thrown himself multitude, but in family life and exterior wor-into the flaming city of Jerusalem under the ship. Superstition seems, indeed, to be an in- Roman swords; he had fought against Gauls, evitable parasite in all religions, whilst in weak Germans, and Saracens; but no lance would minds its growth is so rapid as to supplant and enter his charmed body-no arrow pierce the The wild become more powerful than religion itself heart that longed to be at rest. Thus, in the middle ages, that epoch of simple elephant had crushed him under foot, venomous ignorance and ardent faith, we see the love of serpents had bitten him, the hungry lion had the marvellous most fully developed; often tor- torn him, but he could not die until Christ himmenting superior minds, and seeming to be an self should return to judge the world. This imperious necessity for men saddened and oplegend filled the people with terror and emotion, pressed by the rude hard nature of the outer and probably arose from some eloquent preacher, world. Superstition, as it were, formed the who thus personified the Jewish nation, under atmosphere of those days; it filtered through the figure of a single man, scattered through the the thoughts, feelings, manners, customs, and world, and undestroyed by persecution. Matthew institutions. The Catholic religion, with its Paris is the first historian who speaks of it: an mysticism, enthusiasm, and solemn character, Armenian bishop, visiting the monks of St. lent itself more than any other, not excepting Albans, had conversed with the Jew about the paganism, to this dreamy melancholy of the year 1228, and from that time he appeared at human mind. The religions of antiquity, intervals in several of the cities of Europe. whether Egyptian, Greek, or Roman, were by no dressed in the old Roman costume, much worn, means free from superstitious faith and practice, a long beard, naked feet, and a sad, melancholy but the austere teaching of their philosophers expression. He refused all presents but a few put them down as far as possible. Many of Pence, which he gave away to the poor. At them had taken such root in public opinion that Strasbourg the appeared in 1580, and informed we trace then rearing their heads in later days, the magistrates that he had passed through their though changed in name and object. The oracles city two hundred years before, which was verihad been silent for centuries in the ruined pagan fied by a reference to the city registers. The temples, but they were supplemented by the last time we hear of him is in the city of writings of the enchanter Merlin. The Sibyls, Another no less popular superstition was the whom we see constantly represented in sculpture existence of a king and pontiff, united in one, and stained glass, were held in the odor of named Prester John, who had ruled a vast emsanctity among the Christians of the middle pire for centuries, in which more marvels were ages, because they had predicted the birth of to be found than in Mohammed's Paradise. No Christ. The Revelations of St. Brigitta of traveler to the east dare put a stop to this absurd Sweden, who died in 1373, were especially taken belief; some even pretended to know the place. up by the Church of Rome, approved of at the The kings of Portugal sent several expeditions Council of Basel, and read and commented on into India and Abyssinia to assure themselves from the theological chairs; whilst, still later, of the reality, for this immortal pope gave many the immense success of Nostradamus surpassed an hour's anxiety to the popes of the west, for that of all his predecessors. Visited in his vil- fear lest schism should spring from so distant

Brussels in 1774.

a quarter. There was a curious letter, written of superstition subversive of religious law, and perhaps by some partisan of the Reformation, we have the sins against the sacraments classed to the Emperor of Rome and king of France, by ecclesiastical authority in the name of Prester John, about 1507, in- Thus Baptism, the first and, according to conviting them to settle in his dominions, which he secrated formula, the initiator of all the rest, described as the richest and finest in the world, was very liable to be considered unnecessary if There they would see the fabled phoenix, the the person had partaken of the Eucharist pregriffin, the roc, the seven-horned bull, centaurs, viously. It was a heresy which took its rise in pigmies, and dragons. There sprung the foun- the early Alexandrian Church, and naturally tain of eternal youth, there grew the Tree of belonged to the time when so many adults were Life, from which was drawn the holy oil used converted to the Christian religion, as they for the sacraments of the church; and when the wished to evade the disagreeable ceremony of king and his court sat down to table, they needed immersion. For the same reason, neophtesy no cooks, for a spiritual chef prepared all their who gained the priesthood, and even the episcodishes pal mitre, before baptism, were disposed to supAnother mystical being was Antichrist, who port the theory that ordination rendered the was supposed to be horn in Babylon, and whom first sacrament unnecessary, though the councils the Jews were ready to recognize as their Mes- decided that nothing could supersede it. Some siah. The year 1000 was fixed upon by the Christians, in hope of losing none of the regenmost learned doctors as the time of his appear- eration connected with it, put it off as long as ance, and the end of the world. We have a possible, only receiving it at the same time as terrible picture given by a contemporary of the extreme unction. It was on this subject that desolation which reigned throughout Europe at St. Augustine wrote in these words: "It is a the approach of this fatal term; there were fear- mockery of God to give him only the later years ful signs in the heavens and on the earth of our life, after the devils have had the first." eclipses, comets, meteors, floods, tempests, and The holy water with which it was performed plagues. Superstition aggravated the real evils was subject-matter for many superstitions. The of public misery: the people spoke of frightful good pope, Stephen II., decided that wine, if miracles; the dead were raised; the living water were lacking, might be employed; the struck with sudden death; spectres and demons argument being, that all wine is mixed with came from the abyss. Men thought of nothing water; but the church refused to confirm this but how they should appear before God: they antiteetotal permission. At many a council the gave up their wealth to churches and convents; questions were raised whether salt, bitter, fetid, they thought it useless to till the ground, and occupy themselves in their daily tasks; their fields, houses, and shops were deserted for the altar. At length, the last day of the year 999 arrived; the whole populace, in tears and prayers, crowded the churches, and waited in trembling expectation the sounding of the seven trumpets, and the appearance of Antichrist; but the sun rose bright as ever, the stars fell not from heaven, the laws of nature were uninter- all. rupted. "It was only postponed," said the The choice of the day was another subject of credulous; they counted the days, weeks, and months with indescribable anxiety, and it required many years of anguish to restore calmness to their minds.

:

or muddy water was efficacious; upon which they all agreed that the quality of the water was indifferent, provided that it was genuine whilst scented water, or mixed with lemon or orange juice, oil, or milk, was declared idolatrous or impious. There seems to have been a great desire to interpolate the name of the Virgin Mary or of some favorite saint with those of the Holy Trinity, which made it no baptism at

contention; at first, the principal festivals were only available, Easter and Whitsunday in particular, but in later times any day was permitted. Then the superstitious preferences of parents It will easily be believed that the seven sacra- intervened: if the child was a boy, they would ments of the Romish Church, to which such have it baptized on the fortieth day; if a girl, high pretensions were attributed by its priests, on the eightieth; others holding that it was null came in for their share of superstitious and and void if before the eighth day after birth. idolatrous worship. Whilst censures and ana-Simple-minded mothers insisted on their stillthemas were freely poured out upon those who born children being admitted to this sacrament, interfered with the dogma or form of these cere- and though the church cursed those who venmonies, the church was blind or indulgent to tured to commit such a profanity, there were many a simple but ignorant believer. The always priests to be found who would shut their casuists and theologians, however, of the middle eyes to the sin, to satisfy maternal solicitude. ages did not think their time misspent when The witches were often accused of baptizing searching out and condemning the various forms both living and dead animals; in 1460, a priest

of Soissons, at the instigation of a sorcerer, was would have been buried alive, had they not accused of baptizing a frog with the name of removed the wafer, which was tinged with blood, John, and making it swallow the consecrated and which they showed some years ago in the wafer; after which he made a poison with the sacristy of Seveld, in the Tyrol. This refineflesh of this strange neophyte, and induced his ment of superstitious devotion was much in enemies to take it. Many witches were burned favor with women shut up in the cloister, who under the accusation of having induced priests had no difficulty in persuading their confessors wearing their stoles, and carrying a lighted to yield to their pious fancies. taper in the left hand, to baptize images of wax, In the seventh century, it was considered a clay, or metal, magic books or talismans, for matter of no importance whether the communithe purpose of making them more efficacious. cants received milk or water instead of wine, Some parents insisted on taking as sponsors the and grapes were often used in the place of first poor beggars who presented themselves on bread. The wine which was left after its conthe road or at the house-door; they would have secration was drunk as a universal. panacea their children conducted to the font by bands of against all illness or misfortune, and frequently music or the ringing of bells, under the plea mixed with ink, to write and sign political acts that the child would otherwise become deaf or and private contracts. It was supposed that by lose its voice. Others supposed that the health this means they were made indelible. Thus it of the baby depended on the abundant libations was that the treaty of peace was concluded in with which its baptism was watered, and even 854, between Charles the Bald and Bernard, made the little one share them; and another Count of Toulouse; and also when the pope. practice was to lay it on the altar or in a public- Theodore I., signed the excommunication of house, that the sponsors might redeem it with Pyrrhus, the head of the sect of Monothelites in the council assembled at Rome in 648. It The sacrament of Confirmation, which the would seem that the practice of administering church called the perfecting of baptism, did not the wafer to the dead was not uncommon, from lend itself to so many superstitions, excepting the strong condemnation of it by many ancient in the use of the holy oil with which the can- councils. There were not wanting miscreants didates were anointed. It was composed of who gave it to animals. The inhabitants of different ingredients in the Greek and Latin Suessa, when besieged by the king of Naples, churches; oil and balm were the basis, to which were in such desperate want of water, that they were added aromatic and sweet-smelling herbs. were on the point of yielding, when some one The priest consecrated the mixture by breathing suggested that an ass should be brought to the over it, pronouncing the words of benediction, door of the church, a requiem sung, the conseand kneeling before his work. At the Reform- crated wafer placed in its mouth, and then ation, the oil was agreed to be nothing but a buried alive. Strange to say, this horrible cerecharm and a profanation; but superstition gave mony was actually performed. As soon as it it a supernatural power, supposing that the was ended, the heavens opened, and poured Holy Spirit had entered it, as the body of down such torrents of rain that the wells were Christ was in the wafer. They used to rub it filled. The king raised the siege, and went on a criminal, and make him drink a few drops, back to Naples. to force him to make confession of his crime; It was by no means uncommon during severe but it was decreed by the Council of Tours, in 812, that any priest who sold or gave it from the sanctuary should suffer the penalty of having his right hand cut off.

money.

storms to open the tabernacle, and parade the host round the church; or, in order to stop a fire or an inundation, they would throw in the wafer, so as to make themselves master of it. The few superstitions attached to this sacra- Too often, it was so little respected as to be ment show how little importance the people allowed to take a part in the ridiculous procesattached to it; whilst, on the contrary, that of sions and masquerades of the middle ages. the Eucharist gave rise to a crowd, which the Such was the case at the celebration of the church condemned with the greatest rigor. Fete Dieu at Aix, which King Rene arranged, Popular credulity attached much importance to and where it figured with the Prince of Lovers, the size of the wafer; the larger they were the the King of the Advocates, the Abbe of the more grace was received. It is related that in Innkeepers, and many other allegorical personthe fourteenth century, a German knight, named ages as little suited to orthodox sentiments. In Oswald Mulser, wishing to distinguish himself most places, this particular festival was surfrom the commonalty, would only communicate rounded by a number of ceremonies which rewith a large wafer; but hardly had he received it into his mouth when he felt the ground sink beneath him, and he fell into a hole, where he

called the days of paganism, but caused no scandal in the minds of the people, who seem to have taken part in it with a sort of pious enthu

siasm. They even tolerated dancing in the ing the mass for the dead to an image of wax, churches at certain seasons. Thus, the Chron- which did not prevent the members of the icle of Nuremberg relates that about 1025, in a League, in 1589, from placing on the altar in village in the bishopric of Magdeburg, a large many of the parish churches of Paris such wax party assembled to hear midnight mass at effigies of King Henry III., and pricking them Christmas. They began to dance and sing, with pins and needles during mass, in the hope whereupon the priest excommunicated them, of obtaining his demise. There were certain and without rest or peace they went on for an privileged chapels, where, if a mass for the dead entire year. During the time of this strange were said at a certain hour and day, it would penance, they suffered neither hunger nor infallibly carry the soul out of purgatory at the weariness; neither their dresses nor shoes were moment of the elevation. Such is still the case worn out. When the bishop freed them, some died, others slept thirty nights without awaking, and many retained a nervous shaking in their limbs for life.

in the subterranean chapel of the Holy Cross of Jerusalem in Rome It is said that the devil has often presented himself in person to buy masses in the name of some notoriously wicked The faithful who came to hear mass very fre- person, that he might trouble the conscience of quently brought their dogs and horses, when the priest, and set at nought the privilege of the they were ill, to chapels which were dedicated altar. 'to St. Peter, St. Hubert, and St. Denis, that the The sacrament of Penance, which includes Gospels might be read over their heads, or the confession, gave rise to many gross superstitions keys of the churches applied to their bodies, such as, that a dead man could confess a which effected a cure; or if they themselves mortal sin which prevented his entrance into were suffering from disease, they would stand, Paradise. It is stated that three years after 'raising the right foot in the air, and holding a the battle of Nicopolis, in which the army of wax taper, during particular portions of the the Emperor Sigismund was defeated by the mass, and found the treatment most efficacious. Turks, there was found a head on the field of It was not uncommon in some places to lay battle that opened its eyes and begged for a upon the altar, during mass, the nails of a horse confessor. Many French chroniclers of the which had become lame, to restore it to sound- fourteenth century relate how a canon of Notre ness. On Easter-day, a lamb was brought up to the altar to be blessed, and in imitation of the Jewish oblations, milk, cider, game, fowls, fruits, and vegetables were offered during mass. The various brotherhoods would present consecrated bread, surrounded with gay ribbons and emblems, bringing it in to the sound of violins, flutes, and other musical instruments, whilst the arquebusiers would fire off their guns in the church.

Dame of Paris, when buried in the choir, was, during many successive nights, thrown out of his grave, until he found a confessor who could purge him of his mortal sin, without which he found no rest in consecrated ground. Sometimes it was believed that the dead confessor came to the assistance of the living penitent, as, for instance, St. Basil, upon whose breast, as they carried him to the tomb, was laid a sealed paper, the confession of a great sinner, and, The midnight masses were much approved of when it was removed and opened, the writing by the country people. They carried home a bit was effaced. Still more extraordinary was the of the consecrated bread as a preservative from story of St. John l' Aumonier, who, having rethe bite of a mad dog. The shepherd who was ceived a confession after he was dead, rose from the first to give his offering would be rewarded the tomb, wrote the absolution, and signed it by having the finest lambs in the neighborhood; with his own hand. Long and incoherent conand the horses and cattle that were watered on fessions were much encouraged among nunsreturning from mass would be saved from all the abbess herself sometimes usurping the power illness. The masses for the dead were an in- of absolution. An Abbe of Longpont recomexhaustible source of superstitious practices menced his general confession every day; and both for the priests and people; some of the the blessed Andre d'Avellino is set up as an latter had them said for their own profit, and in example of confessing four or five times a day. their presence, as if they were already in their Whilst absolution after confession only was bier. According to an old pagan idea, seven granted to priests, bishops were permitted to masses and seven wax-lights were the orthodox give indulgences for forty days, cardinals for a number for the departed soul; but St. Gertrude hundred days, and the pope for two thousand counselled the repetition of a hundred and fifty years. The papacy in the middle ages drew an masses, and as many receptions of the com- ample revenue from these indulgences and the munion, for one defunct person. The punish-exhibition of relics. In 1475, when the keys of ment of the stake was incurred by those who St. Peter were shown in the Basilica of St. dared to procure the death of an enemy by say- John Lateran, the Romans who viewed them