persecution into the desert. is so constituted as to take pleasure in certain The two remaining senses, those of taste and harmonious relations of these vibrations, which smell, are very closely connected in use, though are called music. When the waves of the air really fundamentally distinct. In man the recur with a certain rapidity a musical note is smell is quite rudimentary, and is only accessory produced. The fewer the waves, the lower the to taste; but in lower animals smell is as imnotes. As the waves produced are quicker and portant and useful a sense as sight or hearing. more numerous, the notes are higher. There From underneath each hemisphere of the brain are certain harmonies between the various there runs a nerve which, dividing itself into a notes, and when these are put into action, music number of minute branches, pass through a is produced. Almost any vibrating body can sieve-like bone, at the upper part of the nose, and be made into a musical instrument. Thus, air distribute themselves in the mucous membrane may be blown through a tube in the form of a of the interior of the nose. This is the olfactory whistle, a flute, a flageolet, or a clarionet, and nerve, the nerve of smell. It takes cognizance the lower or higher notes are produced by block- of minute particles of matter, which are diffused ing up certain holes with the fingers, which throughout the atmosphere, and which are carmodulates the vibration of the air. The violin ried through the nostrils with the air which we and the piano are instances of stringed instru- breathe. The function of smell seems to be dements, the vibrations being produced by rubbing veloped in the lower animals to a much greater or striking the strings. Brass instruments are extent than in man. Thus most of the mammade of metal, the vibrations of which respond malia are led to their prey and their food by the to the air, blown into them through the mouth. function of smell. The dog is trained to exerAll these instruments may unite together and cise this faculty, and he is used by man to trace form, by the sounds they produce, a concert. the game he pursues. The dog called the bloodOf all instruments, however, the human voice hound has even been used to track the footsteps is the most perfect, and the performer on it of man, when he has escaped from pursuit or being capable of throwing into it his own feeling, singing is one of the most agreeable and The organ of smell is susceptible of pleasant pleasurable sensations which the ear can receive. and unpleasant impressions. The pleasant The ear, like other organs, is subject to dis smells are called perfumes, and they are capable eases. The external opening may be blocked of affording great pleasure to the mind. The up either by the accumulation of its natural nations of antiquity cultivated the sense of wax, or by foreign agents. When deafness re- smell much more extensively than the modern sults from these causes, the ear should be inhabitants of Europe. We read, constantly in syringed out with a syringe and warm soft the Bible of the use made of pleasant smelling water. The tympanum or drum is sometimes gums and resins, such as frankincense and broken by violent noises, or becomes ulcerated myrrh, and in the services of the Temple by disease, and the little bones of the ear are amongst the Jews, the burning of sweet incense lost. This does not occasion perfect deafness. was a constant practice. The Greeks and It is when the auditory nerve is diseased, or be- Romans anointed their bodies with oils, percomes paralyzed, that deafness comes on. This fumed with the sweet smelling scents from nerve, like others, may be disordered by a gen- plants. The art of the perfumer is, however, eral want of health in the system, and its condi- carried to great perfection at the present day, tion removed with restoration to health. When, and he selects the most agreeable scents from like blindness, deafness comes on from palsy of plants and animals, and combining these, forms the nerve, little, if anything, can be done to remedy the terrible deprivation. Some children are born deaf, and to such, another calamity is added, for they are also dumb. Never hearing "the sweet music of speech," they can not imitate it, and only exercise their voice in inarticulate noises. Schools are opened for the instruction of such persons by the aid of the eye, and they are thus enabled, to some extent, to make up for the deficiency of hearing. They are taught to converse by the aid of their fingers, which are used instead of sounds to communicate ideas. Some successful attempts have been made lately to lead dumb persons to speak, by teaching them to observe the movements of the tongue and lips during the speech of others. the pleasant compounds which are used for permuming clothes, soap, and a variety of other articles of domestic use. From recent chemical researches it appears that the volatile oils which give odors to plants and other bodies of a similar nature, such as camphor, have a power of destroying animal poisons. It is a belief of this kind that has led to the employment of strongsmelling compounds, such as "aromatic vinegar," and also of camphor, as a means of preventing the spread of contagious diseases. But whilst the sense of some smells is grateful to the mind, the impression of others produces disgust. This sense of the disagreeable in scent is also seen in the lower animals. Many of them instinctively avoid certain smells, just as they are attracted by others. We may strawberry. When substances, such as salt or attract animals by one set of scents, but we can sugar, or alum, are brought in contact with these drive them away by others. They seem to be papillæ, very different and very decided impreswarned against eating certain kinds of danger- sions are produced. Such substances address ous food by its smell. In the same way man is the organ of taste. It will be seen that the guided and warned by his sense of smell. He pleasure we derive from eating and drinking, is thus avoids putrid food, because of its unplea- due to the impressions produced on both the sant smell. All forms of decomposing animal nerves of smell and taste, and in fact the nerves and vegetable matter give out gases which are of common sensation which are supplied to the disagreeable to man's sense of smell, and he is nose, mouth, and throat, are brought into play warned by this sense of the danger in which he in the gratification we derive from taking food. is placed, by living in contact with substances We have now accomplished the task we prowhich give out these unpleasant gases. It is posed in writing these chapters. We hope we not always that an unpleasant smelling gas will have said sufficient of the structure of the injure the body if taken into the lungs, but it human body to enable all our readers to undershould always be recollected that there is danger stand the operation of the great Laws on which lurking about where the atmosphere of a room, the health and life of human beings depend. a house, or a locality gives out a permanently It should be recollected that these are God's disagreeable odor. Laws, and that He will not suffer them to be Some odors, which are at first unpleasant, be- broken with impunity. It is not God's will that come be use agreeable. The smell of hartshorn any should suffer pain, and perish prematurely, is at first very unpleasant, but by degrees per- but man by his ignorance of the structure and sons take a pleasure in its stimulating effects on actions of his body, is constantly breaking the the organ of smell, and the habitual use of the laws of health, and wide-spread misery and smelling bottle is the consequence. In the same desolation are the consequence. It is also to way nothing is more unpleasant to a child than be hoped that many who enter on this study a pinch of snuff, but we know by sad experience, with a desire to benefit themselves by acquiring that so pleasant does the indulgence of snuff a knowledge of the means by which their own become, that people fill their nostrils with it, life, and that of those around them, may he and often destroy the power of the olfactory made happy and joyful, will be touched with a nerves to discern any other kind of odor. feeling of admiration at the wisdom and goodThese scents and irritating substances, when ness displayed by God in the creation of man. brought in contact with the nerve of smell in Man is the highest work of the Creator, and He sufficient quantities, produce the spasmodic act has given him, above all other creatures, a mind called sneezing. This is a purely sensori-motor capable of understanding the great laws of his action, and is often accompanied with an in- existence, of communicating his thoughts by arcreased secretion from the membrane of the ticulating speech and written symbols, and of It is sometimes a good thing to produce accumulating, from age to age, that knowledge sneezing, and is occasionally had recourse to for by which he may become more and more free the purpose of relieving headache. from the evils which are the consequence of ignorance and self-indulgence.-Dr. Lankester. nose. POPULAR ERRORS. The sense of taste is, in its use, very closely connected with that of smell. In fact, with regard to a large number of things which we introduce into our mouths and place upon the To think that the tongue, which we call the organ of taste, they more a man eats the fatter and stronger he will are rather smelt than tasted. Many substances become. To believe that the more hours which smell before they are put into the mouth, children study the faster they will learn. To are rather smelt than tasted. This is the case conclude that, if exercise is good, the more to a great extent with the flavors of tea, coffee, violent it is the more is done. To imagine that wines, and other beverages, and with food which every hour taken from sleep is an hour gained. is flavored with condiments and spices. There To act on the presumption that the smallest are, however, substances which we take into our room in the house is large enough to sleep in. mouths, and whose properties are alone appre- To argue that whatever remedy causes one to ciated by the tongue. This organ is supplied feel immediately better is good for the system with a nerve coming off from the base of the without regard to more ulterior effects. To eat brain (a branch of the fifth), called the gusta- without an appetite, or to continue to eat after tory nerve. It is distributed by minute branches it has been satisfied, merely to gratify the taste. to the papilla of the tongue. These little or- To eat a hearty supper for the pleasure expegans can be easily observed upon the surface of rienced during the brief time it is passing down the tongue, looking like the seeds upon a ripe the throat. Domestic Economy. GRAFTING, ITS CONSEQUENCES AND EFFECTS. BY MAXWELL T. MASTERS, M.D., F.R.S. trees, or ashen boughs enwreath themselves in a white mantle of pear-blossom, or when hogs shall crunch acorns that have fallen from the overhanging elm. Possibly none of these things will come to pass, and yet others equally strange have happened, as we shall endeavor to show by and by, while much at least of what the old writers tell us is literally true. In hundreds of nurseries at this season pears are being grafted on quince stocks, apricots on plums, apples on crabs, so that Virgil's statement, "Nec longum tempus et ingens Exiit ad cœlum ramis felicibus arbos is as much a matter of fact as that if we commit Who first among surgeons adopted the graftNY one who would write the his- ing process we do not know. Tagliacozzi tory of grafting might readily fill a (Latine Taliacotius), who died in 1553, is the volume-a large one, and one as in- one most held in remembrance for his feats in teresting as large. If he entered requisitioning a portion of the skin of a bystaninto technical details a great many der in order to supply the deficient organism of volumes would be required. All that we have his patient. How this was done is told in space to do here is to show that our forefathers language more expressive than polite by one were not ignorant of the practice, that the sur- Butler, and it may perhaps be said with justice geons adopted it from the gardeners, that John that the "learned Taliacotius" owes his repuHunter made it the subject of experiment, and tation among posterity more to the rhymes of that in these days both surgeons and gardeners Hudibras than to his own publications. John seem disposed to avail themselves yet more and Hunter, who left very little unheeded as unmore of the advantages it holds out. If we worthy his attention, illustrated the grafting could induce any reader of a practical turn of process by divers experiments, among which the mind, and a bent toward physiological inquiry, most striking is perhaps the removal of the spur to turn his attention to the subject, we should of a cock, and its successful implantation on to be glad; for although among gardeners especially the comb. Hunter, too, practised a method of great use is made of the grafting process, it is perfectly clear that a vast field remains yet for research-research, too, almost certain to yield profitable results alike to science and to practice. curing ulcers which has been revived within the last year or two by French surgeons, and carried out with much success in several of our own hospitals. The operation simply consists in the removal of minute pieces of healthy skin, and in their transfer to the diseased surface. Under fitting conditions, and with due precautions, adhesion takes place, the ulcer heals over, and what is usually a long and intractable sore is by these means rapidly and effectually cured. We do not propose in this paper to enter at any further length into the historical or chirurgical portion of the subject. Our intention is simply to treat it from a physiological point of view, and to allude to certain facts or allegations which, if confirmed, will be of no small importance scientifically and practically. Though so largely practised by nurserymen, it is really doubtful if we know much more about the matter than did the "Scriptores Rei Rustica." Columella knew how to bud roses; he describes as many modes of grafting the vine as Beau Brummel had fashions for adjusting his necktie, while Virgil described the results with a neatness of expression that leaves only one regret that the matter of his verse is less correct than the metre. It is the fashion to laugh at these old cultivators, who could wield the pen with as great facility as the pruning-hook, because their ideas of what could be done by Before adverting to the artificial process as means of grafting do not coincide with our own; practised by the gardeners, it may be well to but we should not be much surprised if in the allude to what Nature herself does in this way future it turned out that the statements we without assistance from man. The union of have been accustomed to ridicule contain, nev- branch to branch of the same tree is so common ertheless, much more of truth than is admitted a phenomenon that we need not dwell upon it at present. We do not venture to look forward further than to note it as the simplest and comto the time when apples shall grow on plane-monest case of grafting, at least so far as flower ing plants are concerned. Among the fungi, in- diameter after the trunks had been felled. deed, or even in the early stages of growth of Here was a pretty case for those who held the the mosses, the young plants become so inextri- presence of leaves as an essential to the due cably intergrafted that the so-called individual formation of wood. How would they get over is really a republic one and undivided. In the this difficulty-that wood there was; and yearly higher plants the grafting process is exceptional, increasing, an yet no leaves? Even quite and is the result of some abrasion which re- recently one of our agricultural societies has moves the outer rind, and thus allows the grow-awarded its prize to an essay in which the pheing tissues of the two abraded surfaces to come nomenon in question is in some way or another into contact, and under favorable circumstances explained by the antiseptic action of peat! to adhere to each other. Union of the contigu- What a delightful discovery! Would that the ous branches of two trees of the same species is salt-beef in the brine-tub would increase in like of equally common occurrence with that just manner! Jesting apart, the cause of the mentioned, and to this occurrence the great size annual growth of the stumps of the silver-fir of some trees is attributable. was satisfactorily shown some twenty years ago We mention these more familiar illustrations by the German botanist Goeppert. He was with nothing more than passing comment. They enabled to prove that the roots of the felled illustrate the power that growing vegetable tis- tree inoculated with those of adjacent trees, and sues have of uniting, and that is all we want that a communication of the nutrient fluids with their testimony in this place. More im- from the sound tree served to keep life in the portant for our purpose is the evidence that maimed one. Doubtless a similar root-union plants of different species will unite together. exists in other cases, and affords the explanaThis had been denied, but there are plenty of tion of the formation of those seemingly cases on record, and one facetious observer detached knobs of oak that one occasionally (Charles Waterton) compared the union of a meets with. spruce-fir with an elm, and the consequent Another instance of root-union is worth stunting of both, to the incongruous union of mention, not only for its inherent singularity, Church and State! Such cases are certainly but because it will yield us important evidence abnormal and exceptional, but they exist never- by and by. We allude to the case of the red theless, as a visit to Richmond Park will attest. and white carrot recorded by Lindley. The There may be seen, or might have been a year two roots by some means became twisted oue or two since, a thorn (Crataegus) adherent to a around the other and firmly united together. horn-beam (Carpinus). There are cases where But this was not all. While the tops or crowns the contact of the two trees has been so firm of the two carrots preserved their natural and so persistent that at length the two have appearance above the point of union, it was become actually inseparable unless great force very different below. In fact the characteristics were used. It must, however, be remembered of the roots below the union were exactly tranthat we cite these cases simply as instances of sposed. What should have been a red root the union of two distinct species, not of grafting became white, while the white root blushed properly so called. The difference is this-a with a redness not its own. We may illustrate graft derives its nourishment through the stock what happened in the case of these carrots by on which it is placed, while in the cases just the letter X, consisting as it does of two lines, alluded to each plant, though firmly joined to its one thick the other thin, crossing in the centre. neighbor, is perfectly independent of it in the Now, suppose the thick line to become thin matter of food. The same statement, however, below the junction, and the thin line to become can not be made with reference to the mistletoe thick, and we shall have a change analogous to or the Loranthus. These are different enough that which took place in the carrots aforesaid. from the trees on which they grow; they adhere Another curious phenomenon occasionally to their foster-parents with a tenacity greater met with is the union of embryo to embryo, than that of any graft, and they suck the very either within the seed or immediately after life-blood out of them, ensuring their own germination. In most cases a seed contains destruction by causing the death of the trees on but one embryo plant, but there is always a which they grow. It is worth while noting this provision made for more than one, and in fact fact in connection with the well-known tendency sometimes two or more are produced, as in the that grafting, as artificially practiced, has of orange (Citrus). The mistletoe is one of these shortening the term of life of the plant. Other plants, apt to produce twin embryos, and, what cases of natural union are worthy of remark, is more to our point, the twain are not unfreespecially the union that sometimes takes place quently adherent like their famous Siamese in roots. For many years it has been known counterparts. We have before us as we write, that the stumps of silver-firs increased in thanks to the courtesy of an American corres pondent, a case wherein two seedling plants of the tissues of the plant must be sufficiently the Osage orange (Maclura) are thus united alike to permit of due contact and union, and together. In this plant the seedling consists of so on. But these facts will not suffice to explain a root or radicle, surmounted by a "caulicle" the sympathies and antipathies which plants which bears the two seed leaves above which manifest. A pear (Pyrus) will graft on another the stem proper begins. Now, in our specimen, pear, on a quince (Cydonia), or on a hawthorn the roots are free and the stems are free, but (Crataegus); but there is difficulty in getting it the two caulicles are intimately united through- to grow on an apple, and a like difficulty in out their entire length. In America, where the inducing an apple to grow on a pear, closely as Osage orange is largely grown as a hedge-plant, the two are related. such unions are said to be not infrequent. Mr. Cultivators are often sadly puzzled to find a Thwaites, the eminent director of the Botanic suitable stock on which to "work," as they Gardens, Ceylon, records a yet more curious phrase it, some desirable variety, and it is only instance, wherein two embryos were contained in by repeated trials with various plants that they one seed of a fuchsia, the two embryos posses- succeed. In such cases they have nothing to sing, moreover, different characteristics-a cir- guide them but the general principle that there cumstance probably due to their hybrid origin, must be some near botanical affinity, and, as we the seed in question having been the result of have just seen, even that fails them occasionally. the fertilization of one variety of fuchsia by the For years it was a hard matter to find a stock pollen of another. on which Viburnum macrocephalum could be It would be easy to multiply instances, but grafted, in spite of there being plenty of near we have said enough to show that union may, relations at hand. On the other hand, the and does occasionally, take place between dif- Loquat (Eriobotrya) will graft on the pear, the ferent parts of the same individual plants, or Eriostemon on the Correa, genera which, under between different plants of the same species, the circumstances, we should not call very and even between plants of different specific nature. stem. It is evident, then, that much yet remains to be learnt as to the why and wherefore of these sympathies and antipathies. closely allied, while, in numerous instances, evergreen plants will graft on stocks of deciduGardeners have not been slow to avail them- ous plants. A perennial species of convolvulus selves of this hint. At this season of the year, grafted on an annual species has caused the in our large nurseries, a small army of expert latter to assume the perennial habit of the workmen may be seen preparing the stocks for scion-nay, some French nurserymen have even the reception of the "graft," adjusting the latter succeeded in engrafting a bud on a leaf. Not in its place, and with an amount of precision, only did union take place, but the leaf thus dexterity, and rapidity truly marvellous, the made to serve as a stock instead of speedily more so as a glance at the horny hands of the perishing, as it would have done under ordinary operators would not lead one to credit their circumstances, acquired a greater degree of perowners with the possession of the requisite mauence-assumed, in fact, the characters of a surgical nicety of manipulation. One main object of this grafting process is the multiplication of desirable varieties of fruit or other trees, which could not be reproduced by other means with sufficient certainty and rapidity, and in In addition to a certain not remote botanical some cases not at all. Other reasons why graft-affinity, and to conformity of physiological coning is done will become apparent as we proceed. ditions, it is obvious that nice adjustment and In the meantime, we may briefly allude to some accurate contact of the growing tissues must be of the conditions for successful grafting, so far, secured and maintained if the graft is to be at least, as they are yet known to us. The first satisfactory. is that the plants furnishing the stock and the scion respectively should be nearly related one to the other. We may set aside as fables the stories previously alluded to, or at any rate we may explain them by the operation of causes other than those of grafting properly so called. A close paraphrase, on the part of Erasmus But there is something more than mere botanical Darwin, so far as the last lines are concerned, kinship necessary, and what that is is at present of those of Virgil, already cited. in great degree a mystery. It is readily intelli- Turning now to the effects produced by graftgible that there must be a certain conformity of ing on the scion and on the stock respectively, habit between stock and scion, that the two we open up a very interesting subject for enquiry, must be well matched as regards vigor, health, and we make apparent the objects for which time of starting into growth, and the like, that grafting is employed. Gardeners, as a rule, "On each lopp'd shoot a foster scion bind: |