aceæ.

The species are found only in the Old World; the greatest number being met with in the basin of the Mediterranean. According to Ehrenberg, the order is bounded on the south by the 8th or 9th parallel of N. lat., and on the north by that of 50° and 55°, in Siberia, Germany, and England.

it has hypogynous stamens, although closely related to | Europe, we are indebted to the Arabians. Dr. F. Hami.the perigynous order Illecebraceæ. It has also affinities ton, in his commentary on the Hortus Malabaricus, remarks with Portulaceæ, Lythraceæ, Onagraceæ, and Reaumuri- on the specific designation of this plant, that it is a vile pleonasm,' the fact of its being Indian being referred to in the generic name Tamar-Indus, whence our word Tamarind. The Indian Tamarind is distinguished by its elongated legumes, which are six times or more longer than they are broad. It is a native of various districts in the East Indies and also of the tropical parts of Africa. It forms a handsome tree with spreading branches bearing leaves of a light colour and flowers with a straw-coloured calyx and yellow petals, streaked with red: the filaments of the stamens are purple and the anthers brown. The timber of this tree is very firm, hard, and heavy, and is applied to many useful purposes in building.

The plants of this order are innocuous, and all are more or less astringent; and their ashes after burning are remarkable for possessing a large quantity of sulphate of soda. Myricaria Germanica is recommended as a diuretic. [TAMARIX.]

TAMARINDS, Medical Properties of. Of the two varieties of the only species of this genus, the fruit is much larger in the East Indian than the West Indian. The shell being removed, there remains the flat square hard seeds, imbedded in a pulp, with membranous fibres running through it. In the East Indies the pulp is dried, either in the sun, and this is used for home consumption, or with salt added, and dried in copper ovens, which kind is sent to Europe. (Crawfurd's Indian Archipelago.) This sort, called natural tamarinds, is much darker and drier than the West Indian, which are called prepared tamarinds.

The West Indian tamarinds reach maturity in June, July, and August, when they are collected, and the shell being removed, they are put into jars, either with layers of sugar put between them, or boiling syrup poured over them, which penetrates to the bottom. Prepared tamarinds therefore contain much more saccharine matter than the others. According to Vauquelin, prepared tamarinds contain per cent. citric acid 9:40, tartaric acid 1.55, malic acid 0.45, bitartrate of potash 3.25, sugar 2.5, gum 47, vegetable jelly (pecten) 6.25, parenchyma 34-35, water 27.55. This prepared pulp has a pleasant acid astringent taste, with a somewhat vinous odour.

The second species is the Tamarindus Occidentalis, the West Indian Tamarind, which is distinguished from the other by possessing short legumes not more than three times longer than they are broad. It is a native of South America and the West India Islands, forming also a large spreading tree, with yellowish flowers streaked with red and purplish stamens.

These plants may be grown in this country, by sowing the seeds, which can be easily obtained, in a hot-bed, and when the young plants obtain a height of two or three inches, planting them out in separate pots. For the medical and dietetic properties of the tamarind see TAMA

RINDS.

TAMARIX, the name of a genus of plants, the type of the natural order Tamaricaceæ. It has a 4- or 5-parted calyx; 4 or 5 petals; 4 or 5 stamens alternating with the petals, united at the base; a tapering ovary with 3 stigmas; erect tufted seeds, the tuft being composed of a number of hairs proceeding from the apex of the seed. The species have generally paniculated spikes of small flowers of a red colour.

T. gallica, the French tamarisk, is a glabrous glaucous shrub, with minute acute leaves clasping the stem, with slender lateral spikes of flowers, five times longer than broad. This species is a native of France, and also along the Mediterranean: it is also a native of the coasts of Cornwall, Hampshire, and Sussex, in England. Ehrenspecies, one of which, the T. g. mannifera, known by its glaucous powdery appearance, he says, produces the manna of Mount Sinai. This manna however does not contain any crystallizable mannite, but, according to Mitscherlich, consists of nothing more than a mucilaginous sugar. This is one of the species of this genus remarkable for the large quantity of sulphate of soda which its ashes contain.

It presents an example of one of those natural combinations of gummy, saccharine, and acid principles which are of such great utility in hot climates. It is used not only in India, but in Africa, as a cooling article of food, and the travellers across the deserts carry it with them to quenchberg has described a great number of varieties of this their thirst. In Nubia it is allowed to stand in the sun till a kind of fermentation takes place it is then formed into cakes, one of which dissolved in water forms a refreshing drink. In India a kind of sherbet is made with it, and by the addition of sugar it becomes a source whence vinegar is readily obtained. In the fevers and bilious complaints, and even dysenteries of these climates, it proves highly serviceable; in small quantity it acts as an astringent, but in larger it proves laxative. Boiling water poured over tamarinds yields a drink which is very grateful in the inflammatory complaints of our own country, particularly in the bilious fevers of autumn. An agreeable whey may be made with it, by boiling two ounces of tamarind-pulp with two pints of milk. Tamarinds are frequently given along with senna, but they are said to lessen its purgative property. They form an ingredient in the confectio sennae and confectio cassiae.

In times of scarcity in India the seeds are eaten, being first toasted and then soaked for a few hours in water, when the dark skin comes easily off; they are then boiled or dried, and taste like common field-beans.

T. Indica, the Indian Tamarisk, is a glabrous greenish plant, with stiff twiggy branches; short ovate acute leaves with white edges; elongated spikes of flowers, with bracts shorter than the flowers and longer than the pedicels, and stamens longer than the corolla. This plant is a native of the East Indies. It is subject to the attacks of a cynips, which produce galls that possess astringent properties, and, according to Dr. Royle, they are on this account used in medicine by the native doctors of India. The same property also renders them valuable in dyeing. Other Indian species of the Tamarisk produce galls, which are used for the same purposes as those of T. Indica.

T. Africana, the African Tamarisk, is a glabrous glauscaly, simple, sessile racemes, with ovate chaffy bracts, and a 3-valved capsule. This is a native of the sands along the shores of the Mediterranean. It is found in Mauritiana, around the Bay of Naples, in Egypt, and in the Levant. It has very much the appearance of T. Gallica, but its flowers are larger, and bark darker. Like T. Gallica, its ashes yield a large quantity of sulphate of soda. The bark, as in most of the species, is slightly bitter and astringent, and has been used in medicine as a tonic.

TAMARINDU'S, the name of a genus of plants belong-cous shrub, with lanceolate imbricated leaves, with dense, ing to the Rectembryous division of the natural order Leguminosæ. It possesses the following characters:-calyx cleft, tubular at the base, the three upper lobes are reflexed, the two lower ones joined together, but usually indentate at the apex; petals 3, alternate with the three upper lobes of the calyx, the middle one cucullate and the lateral ones ovate; the stamens are 9 or 10 in number, two or three of which are longer than the others, united at the base, and bearing anthers, whilst the remainder are sterile; the fruit is a legume seated on a pedicel, 1-celled, compressed, with from 3 to 6 seeds, and the valves filled with pulp between the endocarp and epicarp, their inner and outer lining; the seeds are ovato-quadrate in form, possessing cotyledons unequal at the base.

There are only two species belonging to this genus, both of which are trees with abruptly pinnate leaves, bearing many pairs of small leaflets and racemes of flowers.

The Tamarindus Indica, the East Indian Tamarind, was the earliest known species, for a knowledge of which, in

T. Orientalis, the Eastern Tamarisk, is a tree attaining a height of from 10 to 20 feet: it is glabrous all over, with minute, distant, sheathing, mucronate leaves, with slender lateral spikes of flowers, and a 4-valved capsule. This is a native of Arabia, Persia, and the East Indies, and is one of the largest and most elegant of the species of the Tamarisk. One of the finest specimens of this tree existing is at Babylon. The T. Chinensis appears to be a variety of this plant.

Nearly all the species are elegant and delicate shrubs,

made Professor Emeritus, with a pension. In 1797, when the French invaded Lombardy, Tamburini was obliged by the new government to resume active duties at Pavia, as professor of moral philosophy and of 'jus naturæ,' an arduous tax in those times of confusion of ideas and of barefaced licentiousness. Tamburini boldly fulfilled his dufies, and effected some good by proclaiming wholesome principles from his chair. Shortly afterwards his chair was suppressed, but he was appointed rector of the lyceum of his native town, Brescia. When Bonaparte assumed the government in France and North Italy, Tamburini was sent again to Pavia as professor of moral philosophy and of jus naturæ et gentium,' in which chair he continued for eighteen years, till some years after the Restoration, when the emperor Francis made him again Professor Emeritus and præsul of the faculty of law and politics in the university of Pavia. Tamburini was also a knight of the order of the Iron Crown. He died at Pavia, in March, 1827, at ninety years of age, a few days after the death of his brother professor, Volta. His remains were buried with the greatest honours, being followed to the grave by the whole of the professors and above six hundred students, with marks of sincere respect and deep regret.

tically harmonize with the obedience which we owe to the authority of the see of Rome.'

At the appearance of Tamburini's work it was stigmatized as Jansenistical, although the author has not gone perhaps so far as some of the French Jansenists, or as Bishop Ricci and his synod of Pistoia. [JANSENISTS ; Pius VI.] The reasoning is closely argumentative, and supported by numerous references. Several refutations of it were published at Rome and other towns of Italy. The other works of Tamburini are-1, 'Introduzione allo Studio della Filosofia Morale,' Milan, 1797; 2, Lezioni di Filosofia Morale e di Naturale e Sociale Diitto, 4 vols., Pavia, 1806-12; 3, Elementa Juris Naturæ,' Milan, 1815; 4, Cenni sulla Perfettibilità dell' Umana Famiglia,' Milan, 1823; in which the author refutes the exaggerated notions of indefinite perfectibility and universal happiness in human societies. The philosophy of Tamburini is of the Eclectic kind.

(Defendente Sacchi, Varietà Letterarie, vol. i.; Maffei, Storia della Letteratura Italiana, b. vi., ch. 13; Antologia di Firenze, Nos. 39, 76.)

TAME, River. [STAFFORDSHIRE.]
TAMER, River. [CORNWALL.]
TAMERLANE. [TIMUR.]

TA'MIAS. [SQUIRRELS, vol. xxii., pp. 398, 399, &c.]
ΤΑΜΜΕΑΜΑ. [SANDWICH ISLANDS.]
TAMPICO. [MEXICAN STATES.]
TAMUL. [HINDUSTAN, p. 228.]

TAMUS, the name of a genus of plants belonging to the natural order Dioscoreaceæ. This genus is dioecious, the stamens growing on one plant, and the pistils on another. The flowers are alike in having a perianth, which is 6-parted, the calyx and corolla being undistinguishable. In the male flowers there are 6 stamens. In the female flowers the remains are seen of 6 abortive stamens; the ovary is trilocular; the style trifid, with 3 stigmas; the fruit a berry. This genus is supposed to be the Uva Taminia of Pliny: hence its present name.

Tamus communis, the common Black Briony, has undivided cordate, acuminate leaves, and is a very common plant in hedges and thickets throughout Europe. It is a frequent plant in England. It has a long twining stem, spreading in all directions, and reaching from branch to branch of hedges and thickets: its flowers are greenishwhite; the fruit is of a red colour, and hangs in bunches from its trailing branches. The berries are likely to be plucked and eaten by children: they are not however poisonous, although the whole plant contains a bitter acrid principle, which renders it unwholesome. This acrid principle is destroyed by heat; and as the roots of this plant contain a great deal of starch or fecula, a wholesome and nutritious food may be obtained from them by washing and boiling. On the surface of the roots are found blackish tubercles, which contain a larger quantity of acrid principle than the rest of the plant, and these should be removed previous to preparing the roots for eating. The young shoots of this plant taste, when boiled, like asparagus, and are eaten by the Moors with oil and salt.

The work for which Tamburini is mostly known is Idea della Santa Sede,' published anonymously at Pavia, in 1784. An extract from the author's preface will convey some idea of the nature of this work: It very often happens that to the most common and hacknied expressions a vague and indeterminate meaning is attributed. A word was originally fixed upon to signify a certain thing. The idea of it was perhaps clear and preeise in its origin, but as in the course of time the ideas of men change, the word is still retained, though people attach to it different meanings. Hence obscurity and confusion and interminable disputes arise, and still the sound of the disputed word is kept up, without conveying any distinct idea of what it means. Numberless examples might be quoted of such an occurrence. For instance, in our own times everybody speaks of the Holy See, the Apostolic See, the chair of St. Peter, the Roman church, which are so many expressions signifying the same thing, and which in antient times expressed a simple and clear idea, but which now convey to the minds of people the most vague and indeterminate notions. Things the most disparate are identified; people confound one subject with another, the see with the incumbent, the chair with the court of Rome, the court with the church; and from this medley arises a confusion of ideas through which every decree that proceeds from Rome becomes invested with the most respectable authority of the chair of St. Peter, of the Apostolic See, of the church of Rome-a confusion followed by the most pernicious consequences not only to local churches, but also to the universal church, and to the Apostolic See itself. In order to support certain decretals which emanated from Rome, some shortsighted theologians have attributed to the Roman See new prerogatives unknown to the earlier ages of the church, and they have had recourse to a supposed infallibility. . . . Other men have contested these prerogatives, and in the warmth of the controversy the real claims of the Holy See have been overlooked and forgotten. . . . One party has maintained that, on the plea of infallibility, every decision emanating from Rome ought to be received with blind obedience, whilst the other party has imagined that by overthrowing the privilege of infallibility every authority ascribed to it can be boldly denied. . . . Both these extremes proceed from the want of just and exact notions on the nature, the character, and the properties of the Holy See. The present work is intended to establish these notions. A little French book fell into my hands, entitled 'Dissertation Canonique et Historique sur l'Autorité du Saint Siège, et les Décrets qu'on lui aftribue." In the first part the author has well explained the idea of the Holy See and of the Congregations sitting at Rome; and The town first comes into notice in the time of the in the second part he has maintained the primacy of that Heptarchy: several of the Mercian kings appear, from the see. I have adopted the most important principles of this date of charters granted by them, to have had their resilittle work, compressing or enlarging its various parts, and dence at Tamworth. In the Danish wars a fort was built fitting the whole to the wants of our times and country. here in the reign of Edward the Elder (A.D. 913) by his I have explained also the essential rights annexed to the sister Ethelfleda, lady of Mercia, who died at Tamworth, primacy of the Roman see, and have given some general A.D. 920, and Mercia passed under the direct dominion of rules in order to calculate the value and merit of the Edward, who received the submission of the Tamworth Roman decretals, and to make our own conduct prac-men, A.D. 922. Shaw (Hist. of Staffordshire) ascribes to

TAMWORTH, a municipal and parliamentary borough on the border of Staffordshire and Warwickshire: the municipal borough, which includes the greater part of the town, and the parish, which is far more extensive, having an area of 12.920 acres, are divided between the two counties: the parish is partly in the northern and partly in the southern division of Offlow hundred in the county of Stafford, and partly in Hemlingford hundred in Warwickshire. The church is in Staffordshire, on which account the town is commonly described as being in that county. Tamworth is 102 miles in a direct line north-west of the General Post-office, London, or 129 miles by the London and Birmingham Railway to Hampton in Arden, and from thence by the Birmingham and Derby Junction Railway.

of the greater number of the finches; so that the combina- | second, Pipillo would stand intermediate between Aglaia tion of these two characters is, he thinks, perhaps the best and Tanagra, and thus constitute the rasorial genus of the distinction of the whole group. Another peculiarity, he whole subfamily; and this latter arrangement appears to adds, of these birds consists in their geographic range; for him to be the natural one. He considers that the two the whole, as far as has hitherto been ascertained, are na- typical groups or genera are Tanagra and Phænisoma ; tives of the warmer parts of America, being most abundant while those which he thinks aberrant are Nemosia, Aglaia, in those regions nearest to the equinoctial line. They and Pipillo. It was only between the two last of these are,' says Mr. Swainson in continuation, in general small that he had not as yet discovered any affinity sufficiently birds, the largest being intermediate between a sparrow strong to justify the belief that these five genera form a and a thrush, while the majority do not exceed the size of circle more or less complete; the difficulty being how to a linnet; some few are even smaller. It is quite evident, connect Aglaia with Pipillo. He then takes a review of from the great strength of bill possessed by some, and the the genera, for which we must refer our readers to the work notch which is conspicuous in all, that these birds feed itself; and, in the Synopsis at the end of the volume, upon seeds and creeping insects picked from the branches makes the Tanagrine, which he places between the Coccoof trees, for very few of them are ever seen upon the thrausting and the Fringillinæ, consist of the following ground. Their colours in general are bright; and, in a genera and subgenera, all of which he characterizes :large number, particularly rich and beautiful. The little Tanagrinæ. birds forming the genus Aglaia, in fact, are ornamented with the most vivid hues or glossed with rich reflections of gold, rendering them inferior only to the Humming Birds. Some possess considerable vocal powers; and the notes of the subgenus Euphonia, as its name implies, are said to be particularly_musical. The impossibility however of providing the Tanagers with their native sweet food has prevented them from ever being brought alive to the European menageries, to which their beauty would render them the greatest ornaments.'

Subfamily Character.-Bill equally conic; the upper mandible more or less arched, and very distinctly notched. Feet formed for perching. Claws broad and fully curved. Genera.

Tardivola, Tanagra (with the subgenera Pitylus, Tanagra, and Ramphopis). Phænisoma (with the subgenera Phænisoma, Tachyphonus, and Leucopygia). Nemosia. Aglaia (with the subgenera Euphonia and Tanagrella). And Pipillo (with the subgenus Arremon). (Classification of Birds.)

The Prince of Canino (Birds of Europe and North America) places the Tanagrine between the Fringilline and the Emberizinæ. Pyranga is the only genus recorded as belonging to the Tanagrinæ.

Mr. G. R. Gray makes the Tanagrinæ the third subfamily of the Fringillida, arranging it between the Coccothraustinæ and Fringilline. The following genera are enumerated by Mr. Gray as belonging to the third subfamily:

Emberizoïdes, Temm.; Pipilo, Vieill.; Embernagra, Less.; Arremon, Vieill.; Cissopis, Vieill.; Pitylus, Cuv.; Tanagra, Linn.; Saltator, Vieill.; Spindalis, Jard. and Selby; Ramphopsis, Vieill.; Lamprotes, Sw.; Pyranga, Vieill.; Lanio, Vieill.; Tachyphonus, Vieill.; Nemosia, Vieill.; Tanagrella, Sw.; Euphonia, Desm.; Calaspiza, G. R. Gray; Stephanophorus, Strickl.; Cypsnagra, Less. Mr. Gray, with his usual industry, gives the numerous synonyms of each genus. (List of the Genera of Birds, 2nd edition, 1841.)

We select Nuttall's description of the Scarlet Tanager, or Black-winged Summer Red-Bird, Tanagra rubra, Linn. (subgenus Pyranga).

Mr. Swainson then dwells on the obscurity which attends the examination of this group, which he states to be one of the most difficult to be understood in the whole circle of ornithology. He points out, for instance, that the comparative strength of the bill is so variable in the same subgenus, that such variation, indicative of genera in other families, is in this no more than a discrimination of sections or species. Nothing, according to him, can illustrate this fact more than the affinity between Pitylus and Tardivola. Looking to the types of each, he observes, we should say that they did not belong even to the same subfamily; for the bill of the first is nearly as large as in the hawfinches (Coccothraustes, HAWFINCH), while that of Tardivola is so comparatively slender that it seems more akin to the LARKS than to the Tanagers; and yet, he remarks in continuation, between these two extremes or types, he had, when he wrote, before him such a perfect series of graduated forms, wherein not only the bill, but all the other subordinate characters of the two groups, progress in such a perpetual and almost imperceptible manner, that he was actually at a loss to know where Tardivola ends and Pitylus begins. The foregoing affinity being admitted, and it should be remembered that some of the best ornithological The male is scarlet-red, with the wings and notched tail writers have placed it as a genus in a totally different black: the base of the plumage is ash, then white. The family, Mr. Swainson next proceeds to inquire into the female, young, and male in autumn, are dull green, incause of so remarkable a variation in the bill of such closely-clining to yellow in the latter; yellow beneath; wings and united species. He first states that nearly the whole of the tail dusky. Length about six inches and a half; alar exseed-eating birds of Tropical America are composed of the tent ten inches and a half. Tanagers, which, in those regions, supply the place of the other finches so abundant in all parts of Europe. The innumerable small and hard fruits produced in the American forests are, he observes, the appointed food of the Tanagers, the parrots living principally upon the larger nuts, and the bill of the former birds is constructed accordingly. After noticing the disparity of the bills in the finches, taking the common linnet and the hawfinch for example, he remarks how little reliance can be placed on such diversity in determining genera: but this, he observes, will not explain the great difference which often exists in the size and plumage of species which all writers agree in arranging within the limits of the same subgenus; and he takes the restricted genus Pitylus, Cuv., as an example. Some of the species of that genus are green, some black, others grey; and in size they vary from the dimensions of a sparrow to those of a small thrush.

This splendid and transient resident,' says Nuttall, accompanying fine weather in all his wanderings, arrives from his winter station in tropical America from the beginning to the middle of May, and extends his migrations probably to Nova Scotia as well as Canada. With the shy, unsocial, and suspicious habits of his gaudy fraternity, he takes up his abode in the deepest recesses of the forest, where, timidly flitting from observation, he darts from tree to tree like a flashing meteor. A gaudy sylph, conscious of his brilliance, and the exposure to which it subjects him, he seems to avoid remark, and is only solicitous to be known to his humble mate, and hid from all beside. He therefore rarely approaches the habitations of men, unless perhaps the skirts of the orchard, where he sometimes however builds his nest, and takes a taste of the early and inviting, though forbidden cherries.'

Among the thick foliage of the tree in which he seeks The doubts which, in Mr. Swainson's opinion, hang over support and shelter, from the lofty branches, at times, we the correctness of the views which he entertained with re- hear his almost monotonous tship-witee, tship-idee, or spect to the natural affinities of these birds, may, he says, tshǎkadee, tshŭkadee, repeated at short intervals, and in a be said to hinge almost entirely upon his not having been pensive under-tone, heightened by the solitude in which able to examine specimens of Fringilla Zena, which has he delights to dwell. The same note is also uttered by certain peculiarities which lead him to expect that it forms the female when the retreat of herself and young is apthe type of one of the principal divisions among the Tana-proached; and the male occasionally utters, in recognition gers, or that it connects his genus Aglaia with Pipillo. On the first supposition, F. Zena would, according to Mr. Swainson, constitute the passage from the true sparrows (Pyrgita) to the subgenus Tanagra proper; while by the

to his mate, as they perambulate the branches, a low whispering 'tait, in a tone of caution and tenderness. But besides these calls on the female, he has also, during the period of his incubation, and for a considerable time after,