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only relic of the antient Temes; 2, the churches, viz. the fine Gothic cathedral of St. George, belonging to the bishopric of Csanad, the cathedral of the schismatic Greeks, the Roman Catholic parish church, the churches of the Piarists, and of the seminary; 3, the elegant residence of the bishop of Csanad, the remarkably fine building in which the chapter resides, the house of the commander of the military frontier on the parade, the large and handsome county hall in the great square, the barracks, the military and civil hospitals, the synagogue, the Rascian town-hall, which contains the theatre and the assembly-rooms. Some of the churches were formerly Turkish mosques.

Temeswar has three suburbs, one before each gate, at the distance of 300 paces, with fine avenues of trees leading to them. Before the Vienna gate is the suburb Michala, inhabited by Wallachians, who have their own churches, and whose occupations are agriculture and the breeding of cattle. Before the Peterwardien gate is Josephstadt, an extremely pleasant suburb, with very broad straight streets, and trees planted in front of the houses. Many wealthy families reside here in the summer to enjoy the country, and formerly to avoid the fevers that usually prevailed in the town, but which have greatly abated since the surrounding marshes have been drained. The inhabitants of this suburb are Germans. The fine Bega canal passes through the middle of this suburb, and communicates with the Danube. Before the Transylvania gate lies the manufacturing suburb (Fabriken Vorstadt), so called from the great manufactories that were formerly established here, but most of which were broken up in 1738, when a Turkish war was apprehended; the suburb however retains its name. The Turkish merchants have their warehouses here. In this suburb there is a curious hydraulic engine, by means of which water is conveyed in iron pipes underground into the fortress: the inhabitants are chiefly Rascians. There is a considerable trade at Temeswar in the productions of the country, and some manufactures of cloth, paper, iron-wire, and silk. The population of the fortress is about 3000; and that of the whole town, including the suburbs, 13,000, besides the garrison.

(Brockhaus, Conversations Lexicon; Jenny, Handbuch für Reisende in dem Oesterreichischen Kaiserstaate; Thiele, Das Königreich Ungarn; Die Oesterreichische National Encyclopädie; Rohrer, Statistik des Oesterreichischen Kaiserthums; Neueste Beschreibung von Ungarn, &c.; Joseph von Hammer, Geschichte des Osmanischen Reiches; Historisch-Statistischer Umriss von der Oesterreichischen Monarchie. These two last works are anonymous. Hassel; Stein; Blumenbach; Hörschelmann; and Cannabich.)

TE'MIA, Le Vaillant's name for a genus of INSESSORES, or perching birds, which, Cuvier observes, M. Vieillot has changed into Crypsirina, and Dr. Horsfield into Phrenotrix, whilst M. Temminck arranges them under Glaucopis.

Cuvier remarks, that these birds have the carriage and tail of the magpies, an elevated bill with the upper mandible convex, and the base furnished with velvety feathers, nearly as in the BIRDS OF PARADISE. The species most antiently known is, he observes, the Corvus varians of Latham, which is of a bronzed green colour, and found in India and Africa. Cuvier places the genus between Caryocatactes [NUTCRACKER] and Glaucopis.

Mr. Swainson arranges Crypsirina in the subfamily Glaucopinæ, or Wattle-Crows, in his Classification of Birds; but in Fauna Boreali Americana he had made Crypsirine a subfamily. In the Classification, the genus is situated at the head of the Glaucopine, and is immediately succeeded by Ptilostomus, Sw.

Mr. Swainson thus characterises Crypsirina :

Bill shorter than the head, much compressed; the culmen considerably arched, and curved from the base. Nostrils small, basal, concealed by incumbent feathers, which are either soft or setaceous. Wings short, much rounded; the primaries hardly longer than the secondaries. Tail feathers broad and obtuse. Feet moderate, arboreal. The middle toe and claw short, but as long as the tarsus;

Bill of Crypsirina. (Sw.)

lateral toes unequal; hind toe and claw shorter than the tarsus. India.'

Crypsirina vagabonda (vagabunda) and Temia are among the species given as examples.

The first of these is the Pica vagabunda of Gould (Century of Birds from the Himalaya Mountains), and thus described by him :

The specific denomination of this bird is bestowed upon it in consequence of its peculiar habit of life. The Pica vagabunda, or Wandering Pie, unlike the typical pies, who remain constantly stationary in one neighbourhood, seeking for their food in its vicinity, wanders from place to place, travelling over a large space of ground, and not evincing a partiality for any particular situation. The shorter tarsus of this bird, indeed, and its more elongated tail, are indicative of trees being its most usual resort, where fruits and berries offer a supply of its natural food; whereas in the more typical Pice the longer tarsus and more elongated beak fit them for digging in the ground, in which they almost solely seek for subsistence. This species is more widely distributed than any of its congeners, being found in considerable abundance all over India.

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Dr. Horsfield, who gives Corvus varians as the synonym of his Phrenotrix Temia (the Chekitut or Benteot of the Javanese), states that although not a rare bird in Java, his Phrenotrix is by no means familiar, and never approaches the villages and habitations like many others. It can only be observed near solitary hamlets situated in tracts recently cleared for cultivation, where its food is abundantly supplied by the insects contained in the rich mould, and by the wild fruit-trees about the skirts. In consequence of the shortness of the wings, its motions are slow: it is chiefly seen about noon sailing heavily through the air in a right line towards the trees surrounding the openings in the forest. The strength of the bill and of the claws shows its adaptation to feed both on fruits and insects.' (Zoological Researches in Java.)

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TEMNUUS. [TROGONIDE.] TEMPE (Téμn, called also Thessala or Thessalica or Phthiotica Tempe) was the antient name of a beautiful valley in Thessaly, lying between Mount Olympus on the north and Mount Ossa on the south, near the mouth of the river Peneus, which runs through it. It is a narrow glen, not quite five miles long, opening on the east into a wide plain which extends to the Thermaic gulf. It forms the only break in the great chain of mountains by which Thessaly is enclosed on all sides. Antient traditions asserted that the great plain of Thessaly was at one time covered with water, which was at length discharged by the vale of Tempe, which was opened by a stroke of Neptune's trident, or (according to another legend) by the strength of Hercules. The appearance of the country has led modern travellers to accept the mythical story as meaning that the pass was opened at some period by a great convulsion of nature. The rocks which enclose it rise in precipices from the bed of the Peneus, and at the narrowest point these precipices approach so near each other that the road is cut in the face of them.

The Greeks reverenced Tempe as the place from which Apollo transplanted to Delphi his sacred laurel, and admired it as the most beautiful spot in their country. The most vivid description of it is that of Aelian (Var. Hist., iii. 1). See also Ovid, Metamorph., i. 569, &c.; Livius, xliv. 6; Plin., Hist. Nat., iv. 8; Cramer's Greece, i., p. 379; the Tours of Clarke, Holland, Dodwell, and Gell; and Thirlwall's Hist. of Greece, i., p. 5.

TEMPERAMENT (temperamentum, xpãoic) is a vague and unsatisfactory term, but still it is one which, as Dr. Mayo observes (Pathology of the Human Mind, London, 12mo., 1838, Append., p. 162), has for many centuries been found a convenient generalization; and, unless we propose to sacrifice knowledge at the altar of logic, we must still be contented to use this or some other equally indefinite term.' The word means literally a tempering, or mixing together, and may be defined to be a peculiar state of the system common to several individuals, which results from the various proportions in which the elementary parts of the human body are mixed up together, and which gives rise to a tendency to certain phenomena. There is besides in each individual a further peculiarity of combination, which serves to distinguish his temperament from that of any other person, to whom however he may in other respects bear a great resemblance. This individual temperament is called an idiosyncrasy (i.e. a peculiar mixing together), and, as the two words are sometimes confounded, it may be useful to have pointed out the distinction between them. All the different systems of organs in the human frame are accurately adjusted to each other, so as to produce one harmonious whole. If the disproportion be too great, disease ensues; but there are many gradations, compatible with health, where yet this disproportion is very observable. The predominance of any particular system of organs modifies the whole economy, impresses striking differences on the results of the organization, and has perhaps almost as great an influence on the moral and intellectual as on the physical faculties. This predominance establishes the temperament: it is the cause of it, and constitutes its essence. The antients paid considerable attention to the

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subject of temperaments, and pointed out various peculiarities in the constitution and actions of the human body, which have been seen so far to coincide with general observation, that their nomenclature has continued in very general use even to the present day, although the hypothesis on which it was founded is universally discarded. They described four temperaments corresponding to the four qualities of Hippocrates-hot, cold, moist, and dry. It was supposed that there were four corresponding primary components of the human body, namely, blood (aipa), phlegm or pituita (péyua), and the two kinds of bile (ai duo xolai), yellow bile (Eaven xoλn), and black bile or atrabilis (plava xoλn); and the preponderance of one or other of these components in different persons produced the different temperaments. These four primary principles of living bodies were supposed to be compounded of the simple elements or qualities of nature thus: hot and moist produce blood; cold and moist, phlegm or pituita; hot and dry, yellow bile; and cold and dry, black bile. Bodies in which blood superabounds are of the sanguine temperament; if phlegm is in excess, the phlegmatic temperament is developed; if yellow bile, the choleric; and if black bile, the melancholic or atrabilious temperament. The following is the description of the different temperaments given by Paulus Aegineta (De Re Medica, lib. i., cap. 61), in Mr. Adam's Translation (London, 1834, 8vo.):— Those bodies which are of a hotter temperament than the moderate will have their teeth earlier than usual, and will grow in like manner. They feel warmer to the touch, and have less fat; they are of a ruddy colour, and have their hair black and moderately thick, and their veins are large. But if such a one be also fat and brawny, and have large veins, he is fat from habit, and not from nature. The following are the symptoms of a cold temperament: such bodies appear cold to the touch, are without hair, and are fat; their complexion, like their hair, being tawny. But when the coldness is great, they are pale, leadencoloured, and have small veins; and if lean, this does not proceed from nature, but habit. The dry is harder and more slender than the temperate, the hardness indeed being inseparable from the dry temperament; but leanness not only follows the connate temperaments, but also those which are acquired by long habit. It is peculiar to the humid temperament that the body is oppressed by things of a moist nature. The warm and dry temperament, in other words, the choleric, is extremely shaggy, having the hair of the head in early age of rapid growth, black, and thick; but in after-life baldness follows. The veins are large, as are likewise the arteries, which beat strongly. The whole body is firm, well articulated, muscular, and without obesity; and the skin hard and dark. When the temperament is cold and humid, or phlegmatic, the chest is narrow, and, like the rest of the body, without hairs; the skin is soft and white, and its hairs somewhat tawny, especially in youth; and such persons do not get bald when they grow old: they are timid, spiritless, and inactive; their veins are invisible; they are gross and fat; their muscles and legs are feeble, and their joints illformed; and they are bandy-legged. But should the humidity and coldness increase, the colour of their skin and hair becomes tawny, or, if they increase still more, pale. The hot and humid, or sanguine, temperament is softer and more fleshy than the proper, and, when it increases much, is subject to putrid disorders; but if it be only a little more humid and much hotter than the moderate, the bodies of such persons are only a little more soft and fleshy than the moderate, but they are much more hairy and hotter to the touch. But if the cold and dry grow equally together, and form the melancholic temperament, such persons have naturally their bodies hard, slender, and white, with fine muscles, small joints, and little hair; and they are cold to the touch. Although slender, fat is mixed with their flesh. The colour of their hair is correspondent to the degree of constitutional coldness. As to disposition of mind, they are spiritless, timid, and desponding. To say all in a word, with regard to the compound temperaments, they are always to be distinguished by the marks of the prevailing quality.'

The due admixture of these different qualities was supposed to constitute the best form of temperament or constitution (Exparia), of which the following is Paulus Aegineta's description (Ibid., i. 60):- That man is in the best temperament of body when it is in a medium between all extremes, of leanness and obesity, of softness and hard

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ness, of heat and cold, of moisture and dryness; and, in a | the sanguine, afford reason to believe that the desigword, who has all the natural and vital energies in a fault-nation given to this temperament is not wholly unfounded. less state. His hair also should be neither thick nor thin, neither black nor white. When a boy, his locks should be rather tawny than black, but when an adult, the contrary wise.' Further information respecting the opinions of the antients on the subject of the temperaments may be found in the treatise of Hippocrates, De Natura Hominis, tom. i., ed. Kühn; in Galen's works, De Elementis ex Hippocrate, tom. i., De Temperamentis, tom. i., De Optima Corporis nostri Constitutione, tom. iv., De Sanitate Tuenda, lib. v., tom. vi., and his Ars Medica, tom. i.; Oribasius, Synopsis, lib. v., cap. 43, sq.; Aëtius, Libri Medicinales, lib. iv., cap. 53, sq.; Haly Abbas, Theor., lib. i.; Averroes, Collig., lib. vi.; Alsaharavius, Theor., tract. vi.; and Avicenna, Cantica.

We likewise find that sanguine persons are more subject to hemorrhages (to those at least which are termed active) as arising from excess in the force of circulation through the arteries. Individuals of the phlegmatic temperament are predisposed to disorders arising from, or connected with, a low degree of vital energy. Local congestions of blood arising independently of general excitement come under this category. Glandular and tubercular diseases take place in bodies weak in the structures connected with the vital functions, and are perhaps more frequent in the phlegmatic than in other temperaments. Inflammatory complaints, when they attack the phlegmatic, are less acute and more disposed to terminate in chronic diseases than are those of the sanguine constitution, when at least the latter have been treated by appropriate remedies. After the revival of letters, this fourfold division was The relations of the choleric to the melancholic temperaadopted in its most essential parts by all the most eminent ment are similar to the relations which the phlegmatic physiologists. Stahl ingeniously adapted it to the modern bears to the sanguine; the former displays greater vigour, doctrines of the humoral pathology; and even Boerhaave, both in health and disease, than the latter. The choleric although he increased the number of the temperaments to and sanguine, when affected by diseases of the nervous eight, and relinquished the erroneous opinions of Hippo- system, have complaints of greater violence and acutecrates and Galen respecting the constitution of the blood, ness; mania or raving madness belongs particularly (aeyet he still derived the characters of his temperaments cording to the observations of M. Esquirol and many from the principles of the humoral pathology, and sup- others) to these constitutions. The melancholic temperaposed them to be formed merely by different combinations ment is most prone to monomania, attended with depres of the four cardinal qualities. Many late physiologists sion and melancholy illusions. Hypochondriasis much have been inclined to doubt whether the external chamore frequently affects the phlegmatic and melancholic, racters associated with the four temperaments are real and though it is occasionally observed in persons who have constant signs of diversity in bodily structure, and enable some of the external characters of the sanguine temperaus to distinguish the principal varieties of constitution ment. The most severe cases of hypochondriasis, adds which exist. Several attempts have accordingly been Dr. Prichard, and those which approached most nearly to made to define in a more satisfactory manner the pecu- the character of melancholia, have certainly occurred in liarities of organization and the resulting varieties of pre-individuals of a dark leaden complexion, fixed and sullen disposition, which are chiefly interesting with regard to aspect, and lank coal-black hair. pathology. Hoffmann and Cullen have indeed retained But it is not merely on the body, both in its healthy the old division, supposing that the theory of the antients and morbid state, that the temperament exerts an imas to the peculiarities of constitution was founded origi- portant influence; the relation of the different forms of nally upon facts, though subsequently combined with an physical organization to the intellectual, and even to the erroneous theory. Haller seems to have been the first moral, faculties is equally marked and apparent. The relawho decidedly opposed the antient doctrine, not only by tion of mental peculiarities to the structure of the body showing that there was no foundation for the varieties of has been observed by medical authors of every age, and it the temperaments in the peculiar nature of the fluids, but has been stated and explained in different ways. Hippoby substituting in their place the vital actions of the crates said that the soul is the same in all men, but that system. Darwin proceeded upon the principle of Haller; the body is different in different individuals. The soul is and, in conformity with the hypothesis which he adopted ever like itself both in greater and in less, for it undergoes of reducing these actions to the four heads of irritation, change neither by nature nor by necessity; but the body sensation, volition, and association, he formed four tem- is subject to continual alterations.-The affections of the peraments in which these qualities were supposed re- mind depend upon the body; there are many states of the spectively to prevail. The only attempt however to im- latter which sharpen, and many which obtund it.' (Hipp., prove upon the Hippocratic theory and division which has De Victûs Ratione, lib. i., § 21, tom. i., p. 650.) Debeen attended with any degree of success is that by Dr.mocritus, in a letter said to have been addressed by him to Gregory, who to the four temperaments of the antients Hippocrates, asserted that the intelligence of the mind added a fifth, which he called the nervous, and bestowed depends greatly on the body, the diseases of which obscure upon three of the others the new appellations of the tonic, the mental faculties, and draw the latter into consent.' the relaxed, and muscular temperaments. Dr. Prichard (Hipp., Epist., tom. iii., p. 824.) Among the writings however restricts the number to four, and designates them of Galen there is a treatise entitled Quod Animi Mores by their original names; remarking that only four strongly Corporis Temperamenta sequantur (tom. iv., ed. Kühn), marked diversities of external character present themselves written expressly to establish the connection between the to observation; that the nervous temperament is not so passions and desires of the mind and the temperaments, distinguished; and that therefore, as this is an essential part wherein he has handled the subject very ingeniously of the original scheme for the distribution of tempera- and has delivered many profound views of the animal ments, the improvement proposed by Dr. Gregory is lame economy. But it is in the works of modern writers that and defective. These four varieties then of external cha- we find this doctrine most fully developed, and made a racter really indicate, more or less constantly, well marked foundation for a division of human characters. According differences of constitution, and likewise of morbid predis- to Hoffmann, the choleric temperament by peculiarity of position. There is no doubt that persons having the com- organization disposes men to precipitate and impetuous plexion and other signs of the sanguine temperament are conduct, to anger, audacity, impatience, temerity, quarrels, more liable to certain classes of disorders than the phleg- sedition, and the like. On the other hand the slow promatic or melancholic, while the latter have their own gress of the blood through the vessels of the meninges, peculiar tendencies. The sanguine, having a fully deve- which is the result of its crassitude in melancholics, renders loped vascular structure, and therefore a vigorous circula- such persons timid, slow in business, anxious, suspicious, tion of blood, a warm skin, and a high degree of organic with difficulty of forming or uttering opinions. The sansensibility, are more liable to sudden and powerful im-guine by a happier temperament are rendered cheerful pressions from external agents than those of more languid and free from care. A too abundant serosity causes the vital functions. They are subject in a greater degree to phlegmatic to be lazy, somnolent, and torpid. Certain severe inflammatory disorders, and disorders of this class temperaments qualify men for particular situations in life. are in them more acute: they bear however, better than Melancholic men, says Hoffmann, should be the king's persons of more languid habit, evacuations of blood and ministers and counseliors; choleric persons should be the other measures which are found to be the proper re-appointed generals, foreign ambassadors, orators, and conmedies for these diseases. The greater fulness of blood- ductors of all business requiring energy and dispatch; and vessels, of those at least which are near the surface, the it was with some such impression concerning the peculiar greater warmth of the skin, and the florid complexion of qualities of this temperament that Napoleon, after com

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temperature is as low as 1.33°; and from above 600 observations at Spitzbergen (78° N. lat.) Mr. Scoresby found the mean temperature to be 16-99°: a mean temperature of 17° is also found on the American continent, in 65° N. lat.; and hence it may be inferred that, between the parallels of 65° and 78°, and near the meridian of Winter Island, there exists a pole of minimum temperature. The mean temperatures of places in the eastern parts of Asia have not been well ascertained; but since at North Cape in Lapland the mean temperature is that of freezing water, and in Siberia, as low as the parallel of 60° N. lat., the surface of the ground is constantly frozen, it is evident that the isothermal line of 32° must form a curve about some point as a focus in the northern part of the Asiatic continent: hence, for determining the mean temperature of any place, no formula which does not involve the position of the place with respect to the two foci of coldness can be expected to satisfy the phenomena.

plaining of its inconvenient effects in deranging his temper, is said by M. Ségur to have added, Cependant sans cette maudite bile on ne gagne pas de grandes batailles.' Sanguine men, continues the writer above mentioned, are fit for courtiers; but individuals who have the misfortune to be of the phlegmatic temperament, being quite incompetent to any elevated condition, must be made common soldiers or labourers, and condemned to the lowest employments. (De Temperamento Fundamento Morborum, $10, quoted by Dr. Prichard.) It is extremely improbable that an opinion should have held its ground for so many ages among men of observation, especially on a subject requiring no abstruse research, without some foundation at least in fact. The doctrine of temperaments is true to a certain extent, and has ever been confirmed by an appeal to experience. States of the mind are so connected with affections of the body, that it is impossible for any person who considers all the physiological facts that present themselves in connection with this subject to This circumstance has suggested to Sir David Brewster doubt that with each temperament particular mental the formula T=(t-7) sin." sin."'+7 for the mean qualities must be associated, although it is manifest that temperature at any place: T being that temperature, t many writers have indulged their fancy on this subject, the mean temperature at the equator, the temperature at and have gone into more full and minute details than each of the foci of coldness, and d, d', the distances in deexperience will establish. The same may be said of phre-grees between the given place and those foci. A correnology, with which science the doctrine of the tempera- sponding expression will serve to determine the number of ments is in this point of view closely connected, as modi- vibrations which would be performed by a magnetized fying in some degree the intellectual and moral qualities needle in a given time if t and be made to represent the depending on the organization of the brain. This very numbers performed, in an equal time, at the magnetic interesting subject is discussed at some length in Dr. equator and at either of the poles of magnetic intensity: Prichard's article on Temperament' in the Cyclopædia of the exponent n, both for temperature and intensity, is to Practical Medicine, from which most of the preceding obser- be determined by means of observations, and Brewster vations are taken. See also Bostock, Richerand, and Mül- considers that the fraction may be the value of it in ler's works on Physiology, and other writers there quoted. the formula for temperature. TEMPERAMENT. [TUNING.]

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TEMPERATURE. [ATMOSPHERE; CLIMATE; ISOTHERMAL LINES.]

TEMPERATURE OF THE EARTH. [GEOLOGY, p.

133.]

TEMPERATURE. It is intended under this head to notice the law of the variations of temperature on the earth so far only as to indicate its analogy with that of the variations of terrestrial magnetism; the formulæ expressing the mean temperatures at different places being, as yet, very far from affording satisfactory results, and observations being too few to serve as a basis for correct theory. In CLIMATE there are given some general observations concerning the distribution of heat at the surface of the earth, and under ISOTHERMAL LINES there will be found the estimated values of the mean temperatures at the equator and at the geographical north pole. With respect to the former, it may be said to have been tolerably well determined, and to be nearly uniform quite round the world; but the mean temperature at the pole can only be surmised from the uncertain evidence afforded by an application of the formula of temperature which has been found to hold good in the north of Europe, and a correction founded on an estimated amount of the frigorific influence of ice even the determination thus obtained is rendered still further uncertain by the fact that the decrease of temperature in proceeding from the equator northwards is different on meridians which differ considerably in longitude.

The similarity of character which is presented by the isothermal lines and those of magnetic dip and intensity, with respect to two polar points in one hemisphere of the earth, and the fact that the poles of temperature and magnetism lie nearly in the same parts of the world, cannot fail to suggest the idea that there may be a connection between the temperature and magnetism of the earth. It is generally believed, also, that the temperature of the western parts of Europe is now higher than it was nearly two thousand years since; and it has, hence, been inferred that the poles of minimum temperature perform revolutions about the geographical pole of the earth, so that the terrestrial meridian on which the greatest cold prevails gradually changes its position. If this opinion be well founded, the circumstance will afford another argument in favour of the hypothesis which assigns to the temperature and magnetism of the earth an intimate connection with each other, by its correspondence to those motions of the poles of magnetic dip which have been adduced from observations by M. Hansteen. [TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM.]

As the mean temperature at the surface of the earth is an element of great importance in the present state of physical science, it has been strongly recommended to travellers and persons making distant voyages, if they are to remain only a few days at any place, that they should, on arriving, lose no time in burying in the earth, to the depth of from three to twelve feet, according to the power of penetrating into the soil, bottles filled with water, or with spirits, if there should be any danger of water freezing. These bottles should be packed in boxes stuffed with woollen cloths, pounded charcoal, or any other nonconducting material, and should be allowed to remain underground till the time of departure, in order that they may acquire, as accurately as possible, the temperature of the ground. On being taken up, the temperature of the liquid should be ascertained by a good thermometer in

Before this difference of temperature on the same parallel of latitude in the old and new continents was known or regarded, a simple formula was thought sufficient to express the temperature at any parallel of terrestrial latitude. The celebrated Tobias Mayer, from such mean temperatures as had in his time been observed, found that the temperature t (on Fahrenheit's scale) at any place might be represented by T-52° sin. L, where Tserted in the bottle. is the mean temperature at the equator, and L the geographical latitude of the place; and in 1819 M. Daubuisson (Traité de Géognosie ') proposed the more accurate formula t=27° cos.2 L (centigrade scale); which being adapted to Fahrenheit's scale, considering the mean temperature at the equator to be 81°, becomes 32°+49° cos.2 L. This formula has been found to serve for temperatures in Europe as far north as the latitude of 60°; but beyond that parallel it is useless, and it supposes the temperature at the geographical pole to be 32°, which is much too high.

From above 4000 observations which were made by Sir Edward Parry, it is found that in Winter Harbour, in 74° 45' N. lat., and in long. 250° (110° W. long.), the mean P. C., No. 1510.

TEMPERATURE OF PLANTS. The living processes by which heat is so evidently developed in animals go on, though much less actively, in plants, and give to them a peculiar temperature, independent of the air in which they live. The periods at which an increase in the temperature of plants has been most evidently observed are those of germination, flowering, and impregnation; but it is only because those chemical changes which produce heat are more active during the performance of those functions that the heat becomes more evident. The great cause of the development of heat in animals is the union or combustion of carbon with oxygen, which is constantly taking place during the process of nutrition in the various tissues of VOL. XXIV.—2 A

That a development of heat took place during the growth of plants was proved by Hunter, who placed a thermometer within the stems of several trees, and found that their temperature was always above that of the atmosphere. These experiments were followed up by Salomé, Hermstadt, and others, who confirmed the experiments of Hunter. De Candolle however supposed that this increase of temperature depended on the sap which was pumped up from the soil; but this theory will not explain the phenomena of heat observed during the growth of plants, nor is it at all applicable to its occurrence during germination, which is evidently an analogous process.

the animal body. The same thing occurs during the general | five. His reputation rests now almost entirely upon his growth of the plant: a certain quantity of carbonaceous etchings, although in his time he had a great name also, as matter is contained in the sap of the plant, which, coming a painter. Lanzi terms him the first Italian who ever atin contact with oxygen in the tissues of the plant, unites tained distinction in landscape and animal painting, and with it, forms carbonic acid, and heat is developed. considers him at this period to have been unrivalled in his own style in Italy; he was however surpassed afterwards by Cerquozzi and Borgognone. Horses were his favourite subjects, and he excelled in battles, processions, cavalcades, hunts, and various field-sports. His designs, particularly his etchings, are remarkable for their spirit and boldness of conception, but they are at the same time coarse and heavy, and careless in their execution. He painted generally small figures; in large ones he was not successful, and he seldom attempted them; he however occasionally prepared large cartoons for tapestries, in the style of his master Strada. Tempesta's chief works in painting, besides those in the Vatican, already noticed, were a Slaughter of the Innocents, in the Church of San Stefano Rotondo, at Róme; and two great cavalcades and state-processions, executed for the Cardinal Scipione Borghese, as friezes around the loggie of his palace on Monte Cavallo (afterwards Palazzo Bentivoglio), which, according to his biographer and contemporary Baglione, were alone sufficient to have ensured him a lasting reputation if he had never painted anything else. One represented a state procession of the Pope; the other, one of the Grand Turk. Tempesta has executed etchings of both these subjects. His invention was amazingly fertile; he has been equalled by few artists in the number of his designs. According to Gandellini, Tempesta etched 1519 plates, and about 500 have been engraved after him by other masters. He also engraved after other masters himself; he executed some battles, and 40 plates of the Spanish story of The Seven Twin Sons of Tara,' after Otho Venius: Filibien, in his Entretiens sur les Vies des plus célèbres Peintres,' has related the story at length, and has described the subject of each plate.

Schubler, Neuffer, Nau, and Goeppert have conducted a variety of experiments on the temperature of plants. They found that in winter the parts that were not frozen had a higher temperature than the surrounding air: this was much more remarkably the case in spring; but in summer the temperature of the plant was mostly below that of the surrounding air. These experiments are in accordance with what we know to be the law of the development of heat in more highly organized textures. In winter the vital processes of plants are slow or almost suspended; hence the small increase of temperature at that season. In the spring the process of growth is most rapid, and there is the greatest conversion of nutritive matter into the structure of the plant, and it is at this season of the year that the temperature of the plant is highest above the surrounding air; but in summer the heat of the air becomes greater, and the temperature of the plant is kept under that of the atmosphere by the exhalation which is constantly going on from all parts of its surface.

In the development of heat during germination the changes that take place are more evident. The starch or fecula surrounding the young plant is converted into sugar, and this process takes place through the separation of carbon and oxygen in the form of carbonic acid, which, during their union, give out heat. A familiar instance of this process is seen in the increased heat of the growing barley previous to its being dried to form malt.

The increase of heat is more evident still in the flowering of plants, which, according to Dunal, results from the conversion of a certain portion of starch or fecula in the disk and petals of the plant into sugar, for the nutrition of the anthers and ovules of young plant. The increased heat of the flowers of plants during certain stages of their development was first observed by Madame Hubert in Madagascar, who, being blind, was the more dependent on the organ of touch; and in handling plants she found that the Arum cordifolium was much warmer than others. This led Bory St. Vincent to pursue a series of experiments on this plant, in which he found a very high degree of heat developed during its flowering, which was sometimes 7° higher than the surrounding atmosphere. The flowers of the Arum tribe are very favourably constructed for the development and retention of heat; but all flowers, previous to the full development of their anthers and the function of impregnation, undergo these changes, which produce an increase of temperature.

(Meyen's Pflanzen Physiologie, band ii.; and Lindley's Introduction to Botany.)

TEMPERING OF STEEL. [STEEL.] TEMPESTA, ANTONIO, a celebrated Italian battle and animal painter and engraver, was born at Florence in 1555. He became the scholar of John Strada or Stradanus, a Fleming, who was settled at Florence in the employ of the grand-duke, and who assisted him in the battles which he painted in the old ducal palace. Tempesta, after painting some years with Strada, whom he surpassed in many respects, visited Rome, and was employed by Gregory XIII., in the Vatican, where he painted, in small figures in fresco, the Translation of the Body of St. Gregory of Nazianzus, and some other subjects, which acquired him a great reputation among the artists and virtuosi of Rome, and procured him constant occupation from the Roman nobility. He executed several good works for the Cardinal Alessandro Farnese, at his villa at Caprarola, and some at Bassano for the Marquess Giustiniani. Tempesta resided chiefly at Rome. and died there in 1630, aged seventy

Tempesta's style of etching is peculiar and not agreeable; and although his designs are bold, and contain many grand parts, they are heavy, his style of design gross, his compositions generally confused, and his light and shade disposed without taste: his most valuable designs are his hunts and field-sports, and his studies of horses. Of his other pieces the following are among the best and the most celebrated:

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A set of 150 illustrations to the Old Testament, known as Tempesta's Bible;' 15 large figures of Christ, the Virgin, and the Apostles; a very large plate of the Victory of the Jews over the Amalekites, marked Hebraeorum Victoria ab Amalechitis reportata,' the composition of which is spirited, but very confused; the Life of St. Antony, in 24 plates; 150 small plates from Ovid's Metamorphoses;" 13 of the Labours of Hercules; and 7 of the Seven Wonders of the Antient World. He etched many cavalcades and processions, and engraved also large plates from the following statues-they are however executed too much in his own style to be faithful representations of the originals:-Castor and Pollux, and the horses on Monte Cavallo, and the equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius on the Capitol, at Rome; the equestrian statue of Cosmo I., by John of Bologna, at Florence; that of Henry IV. of France, at Paris, which was destroyed in 1792; and one of Henry II. of France. The last statue however never existed, for a figure of Louis XIII. was placed upon the horse which was originally designed for a statue of Henry II., who was killed at a tournament. Tempesta's print bears the following inscription: Effigies equi aenei operis Dan. Ricci, Volterrani, fieri jussit Reg. Maria ob memor. Reg. Henrici II. F. M. sui viri, qui obiit in torniamentis.' A spirited design of the Battle of the Centaurs and the Lapithae, by Tempesta, was cut in a large size in wood, by Jeronime Parabole. As a man Tempesta appears, according to his contemporary Baglione, to have been highly accomplished in every respect, and to have been universally esteemed by his companions. There is a long list of the works of Tempesta in Heineken's Dictionnaire des Artistes,' &c., and in the Peintre Graveur' of Bartsch.

TEMPESTA, CAVALLERE, called also in Italy Pietro Mulier or de Mulieribus. This artist, who is sometimes confounded with Antonio Tempesta, was a native of Holland, although better known in Italy, and his real name was Peter Molyn. Fiorillo says he was the son of a landscape-painter of the same name, and was born at Haar

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